Imports of fresh fruits and vegetables to the United States have grown by more than 350 percent since 1989. Factors such as rising consumer incomes, the desire for greater variety and availability of fresh produce throughout the year, and a reduction in trade barriers through multi-lateral and bi-lateral trade agreements have contributed to this growth in imports. In addition, since the implementation of the Agreement on Agriculture and the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures from the Uruguay Round of the World Trade Organization negotiations, there have been numerous requests to export fresh fruits and vegetables to the United States. From 1996 to 2008, the United States has granted new market access to 204 exporter/commodity combinations. Given this large increase in new market access, this thesis assesses the success of the new entrants in terms of contributing to the increase in fresh fruit and vegetable imports and whether they exported on a continual basis after gaining import eligibility. In addition, this thesis estimates a gravity model to assess the differences in fresh fruit and vegetable exports from new entrants subject to phytosanitary measures relative to those with no such restrictions in place and to determine whether these effects vary by commodity sector and exporter's size. The major finding of this thesis is that in general, new entrants have contributed little to the growth in U.S. fresh fruit and vegetable imports. For most commodities, new entrants do not provide a significant proportion of imports potentially because new entrants are not able to compete with existing suppliers. This study finds differences in fresh fruit and vegetable exports from new entrants subject to specific phytosanitary treatments relative to entrants with no such restrictions in place. / Master of Science

O sistema Fairtrade é um comércio alternativo, norteado nas relações de troca mais justas visando uma maior equidade no mercado internacional, por meio do desenvolvimento sustentável dos produtores e trabalhadores, tidos como marginalizados, especialmente, do Hemisfério Sul. Ressalta-se que a constituição dos mercados de produtos certificados não ocorre de forma instintiva, e sim, de forma negociada entre os agentes envolvidos. Conforme esses mercados são ajustados, novas estruturas de governança surgem e são reestruturados para se adequar às novas demandas e dinâmicas instituídas (LEME et al, 2013). No Brasil, a certificação Fairtrade é aplicada em diversos produtos; contudo, os que mais se destacam são o café, o suco de laranja e as frutas frescas. Alguns estudos acadêmicos já foram desenvolvidos para melhor compreender a referida certificação no café e suco de laranja; no entanto, no Brasil, ainda carece desses estudos voltados para as frutas frescas, em esfera nacional. Pensando nessa carência, a presente pesquisa tomou como objeto de análise a rede Fairtrade Frutas Frescas Brasileiras. Para a realização de tal estudo, foi utilizada a Teoria dos Custos de Transação, com o intuito de identificar e analisar os contratos existentes na referida rede, bem como verificar a atuação da Fairtrade International. Nesta pesquisa, foram considerados dados secundários e entrevistas com os representantes das 13(treze) organizações produtoras contempladas neste estudo, assim como da Fairtrade International, das traders e, de outras organizações que compõem a rede. As análises permitiram identificar que a Fairtrade International é o centro estratégico da rede Fairtrade Frutas Frescas, o qual é responsável pela coordenação de toda a rede. Também foram identificados três tipos de contratos envolvendo as organizações produtoras (OPs), os quais ligam as OPs à rede Fairtrade, aos traders, e aos seus importadores. A relação que surge nas transações contratuais na rede é de dependência trilateral e os contratos são do tipo neoclássico. Frisa-se que, como o sistema Fairtrade prima pelas relações duradouras entre produtores e importadores, espera-se que os contratos evoluam de neoclássicos para relacionais, porém, a pesquisa evidenciou que a frequência dos contratos identificados é discreta. Também, ficou claro que a Fairtrade International vem, em suas ações, priorizando o atendimento de critérios de conformidade por parte dos produtores, em detrimento do fortalecimento das relações contratuais existentes na rede. / The Fairtrade system is an alternative market based on fairer trade relations, aiming at greater equity in the international market, through sustainable development of marginalized producers and workers, especially, from the southern hemisphere. The constitution of certified commodity markets do not occur in an instinctive form, but through negotiation among involved actors. As these markets are adjusted, new governance structures emerge and are re-structured to adapt to new instituted demands and dynamics (LEME et al. 2013). In Brazil, Fairtrade certification is employed in diverse products, however the most prominent commodities are coffee, orange juice and fresh fruits. Some academic studies have been developed to better understand the Fairtrade certification in the coffee and orange juice sectors, however there is a lack of this type of study in fresh fruits in the national level. To address this lacuna, this research analyzes the Brazilian Fairtrade certified fresh fruit network. To carry out this study, the Transaction Cost Theory was utilized to identify and analyze the existing contracts in the Fairtrade certified networks and to demonstrate the activities of Fairtrade International in Brazil. This research analyzed secondary data and interviews with representatives from 13 producer organizations, Fairtrade International, traders and key actors of the network. The research findings identified that Fairtrade International is the fresh fruit network strategic center, responsible for the coordination of the entire network. It also identified three types of contracts involving producer organizations (POs), linking the POs to the Fairtrade network, trades and their importers. The relations that emerged from the network contractual transitions are trilateral dependency and the contracts are the neoclassical type. It is important to note that Fairtrade focuses on long-lasting relations between producers and importers, thus it is expected that the contracts evolve from neoclassical to relational, however this research evinced that the frequency of contracts identified in this study are discrete. It also became clear that Fairtrade International, with their actions, is prioritizing the producer criteria conformity in detriment of the strengthening of relational contracts in the network.

A crescente tendência para o livre comércio e o elevado ritmo em que as economias nacionais estão se transformando em globais, têm aumentado a importância do construto imagem de país, uma vez que, para muitos autores, a imagem impacta na forma com que os consumidores avaliam os produtos produzidos em diferentes países e assim influencia seu comportamento de compra. No entanto, na literatura, observa-se uma divergência no campo teórico desse conceito. Para muitos autores, apesar do conhecimento a respeito da sua importância, não é observado um consenso na forma de conceituar e operacionalizar o construto. Assim, não há nenhuma análise sistemática dos conceitos existentes e, sequer uma forma melhor de operacionalizá-los. Desse modo, o presente trabalho tem como objetivo verificar se diferentes formas de operacionalização do construto imagem de país levam a resultados semelhantes. Para isso, foram comparadas duas escalas, utilizadas para mensurar a imagem do país de origem, a fim de verificar, de forma empírica, o comportamento dessas escalas, já que são pertencentes a uma mesma base teórica e assim contribuir para uma discussão, mais profunda, a respeito da confiabilidade e validade dos estudos sobre imagem de país. Embora existam muitos artigos a respeito da imagem dos países mundialmente, o Brasil foi foco de poucos trabalhos. Assim, o presente trabalho também possui como objetivo mensurar a imagem do Brasil. O Brasil é o detentor do maior saldo da balança comercial agrícola do mundo e possui um histórico de superávits. Tendo em vista o exposto acima, pretende-se observar qual é a imagem que o Brasil possui em relação aos consumidores ingleses, que foram escolhidos por sua relevância no comércio internacional, estando em quarto lugar no ranking dos principais países importadores de produtos agrícolas do mundo. O método utilizado foi o transversal simples (também chamado de Levantamento ou Survey). A pesquisa caracteriza-se como sendo quantitativa e foram coletados 223 questionários, junto aos estudantes da Faculdade Royal Agricultural College, localizada em Cirencester, Gloucestershire na Inglaterra. Para comparar as escalas, foram agrupadas as escalas de Pisharodi e Parameswaran (1992) e Nebenzahl, Jaffe e Usunier (2003). Como resultado, foi obtido para a escala de Pisharodi e Parameswaran (1992), 5 dimensões (atributos especificos do produto, faceta pessoas, faceta interação, atrbutos desejaveis do produto e atributos indesejáveis do produto) e para a escala de Nebenzahl, Jaffe e Usunier (2003) 3 dimensões (desafortunado, busca por qualidade e satisfação e busca por valor econômico), sendo que a imagem resultante da primeira escala do Brasil foi negativa e para a segunda escala positiva. Com esses resultados fez-se, ainda, análise de cluster não hierárquico forçando dois clusters para cada escala e foi observada novamente uma diferença nos resultados, uma vez que os respondentes foram agrupados de forma diferente em cada escala, o que significa que uma mesma pessoa na escala de Pisharodi e Parameswaran (1992) foi enquadrada no cluster de imagem negativa e na escala de Nebenzahl, Jaffe e Usunier (2003) essa mesma pessoa foi incluída no cluster de imagem positiva. Dessa forma, comparando-se as escalas, 61% das pessoas não foram enquadradas da mesma forma pelo cluster e foi preciso rejeitar a hipótese inicial do trabalho (o resultado da aplicação das duas escalas seria semelhante). Assim, a pesquisa contribuiu para o avanço da discussão nas lacunas existentes sobre o tema imagem de país, além de fornecer informações que podem servir, tanto para profissionais de marketing como para agentes do governo, que visam fortalecer a imagem do Brasil. Como limitações do trabalho, podem ser citadas: a comparação de apenas duas das escalas existentes na literatura, a extensão do questionário e o foco dado apenas ao Brasil. / The increasing trend towards free trade and the high rate at which national economies are becoming global, has shown an increase in the importance of the country image contruct, since, for many authors, the image impacts the way in which consumers evaluate the products manufactured in different countries and thus influences their buying behavior. However, in the literature, there is divergence regarding the concept. For many authors, despite the knowledge about its importance, there is no consensus on how to conceptualize and operationalize the construct. Thus, there is no systematic analysis of existing concepts, and no best way to operationalize them. Thus, this study aims to determine whether different forms of measurement of the \"country image\" construct would lead to similar results. For this, we compared two scales used to measure the image of the country of origin, to verify, empirically, the behavior of these scales, since they are owned by the same theoretical basis and thus contribute to a deeper discussion, regarding the reliability and validity of studies on country image. Although there are many articles about the image of the world countries, Brazil was the focus of few of such studies. Thus, this work also has aimed to measure the image of Brazil. This country is the largest holder of agricultural trade balance of the world and has a history of surplus. So, we intend to observe which is the image of Brazil in relation to British consumers, who were chosen for their relevance in international trade, while it is ranking fourth among the main importing countries of agricultural products in the world. Survey method was applied, and the research is characterized as being quantitative and 223 questionnaires were collected, with students of the Royal Agricultural College, located in Cirencester, Gloucestershire in England. To compare the scales, Pisharodi and Parameswaran (1992) scales and Nebenzahl, Jaffe and Usunier (2003) scales were grouped. As a result, five dimensions (specific product attributes, people facet, interaction facet, desirable product attributes and undesirable product attributes) were obtained for the Pisharodi and Parameswaran (1992) scale, and the scale of Nebenzahl, Jaffe and Usunier (2003) obtained 3 dimensions (underdog, quality and satisfaction seeker and economic value seeker). A negative image of Brazil was observerd using the Pisharodi and Parameswaran (1992) scale and for the Nebenzahl, Jaffe and Usunier (2003) scales a positive image of Brazil was seen. With these results, yet, a non-hierarchical cluster analysis was made, forcing two clusters for each scale and again there was a difference in the results, since the respondents were grouped differently in each scale, which means that a person who was framed in the cluster of negative image in Pisharodi and Parameswaran (1992) scale was framed in another cluster of positive image in Nebenzahl, Jaffe and Usunier (2003) scale. Thus, comparing the scales, 61% of people were not framed the same way by the cluster and we had to reject the initial hypothesis of the work, that the result of applying two diferent scales would be similar. The research contributed to the advancement of gaps in the discussion on the country image theory, and provides information that may be useful both to marketers and government officials, aimed at strengthening the image of Brazil. The limitations of the work may be cited: the comparison of only two scales of the literature, the length of the questionnaire and the focus given only to Brazil.

Background: Along with the rapid economic development in China, some associatingproblems emerged, such as inflation. Especially for the daily consuming fresh fruits andvegetables (FFV), the price goes up at very fast speed, which draws a lot of publicattention on it. Farmers are discouraged and hurt by the low vegetable prices. However,end consumers are complaining about the high vegetable prices. A consensus is reachedthat the problem behind this phenomenon exists in the "distribution links".Aim: How is the current status of FFV distribution system of supermarkets in China?What factors do influence the efficiency and cost of the system? How is theimplementation of ASD in China and what are the advantages and barriers? Should it beimplemented widely? If yes, what are our recommendations to improve it?Definition: Agricultural super-docking is a new method of supply and distribution offresh agricultural products from farmers to supermarkets directly, by signing anagreement of intent between farmers and merchants, in order to build an efficientplatform for quality agricultural products to enter the supermarkets. The essence of ASDis to dock the thousands of small farmers and the different supermarkets to build anintegrated production and marketing chain to gain benefit for merchants, farmers andconsumers at the same time.Completion and results: It is a complex task to improve the efficiency of FFVdistribution system of supermarkets in China and there is a long way to go to implementASD successfully and widely since this market is at the starting stage and immature. Toimplement ASD successfully and widely, professional FFV third-party distributioncenters should be constructed, as well as exchanging information norm.

O sistema Fairtrade é um comércio alternativo, norteado nas relações de troca mais justas visando uma maior equidade no mercado internacional, por meio do desenvolvimento sustentável dos produtores e trabalhadores, tidos como marginalizados, especialmente, do Hemisfério Sul. Ressalta-se que a constituição dos mercados de produtos certificados não ocorre de forma instintiva, e sim, de forma negociada entre os agentes envolvidos. Conforme esses mercados são ajustados, novas estruturas de governança surgem e são reestruturados para se adequar às novas demandas e dinâmicas instituídas (LEME et al, 2013). No Brasil, a certificação Fairtrade é aplicada em diversos produtos; contudo, os que mais se destacam são o café, o suco de laranja e as frutas frescas. Alguns estudos acadêmicos já foram desenvolvidos para melhor compreender a referida certificação no café e suco de laranja; no entanto, no Brasil, ainda carece desses estudos voltados para as frutas frescas, em esfera nacional. Pensando nessa carência, a presente pesquisa tomou como objeto de análise a rede Fairtrade Frutas Frescas Brasileiras. Para a realização de tal estudo, foi utilizada a Teoria dos Custos de Transação, com o intuito de identificar e analisar os contratos existentes na referida rede, bem como verificar a atuação da Fairtrade International. Nesta pesquisa, foram considerados dados secundários e entrevistas com os representantes das 13(treze) organizações produtoras contempladas neste estudo, assim como da Fairtrade International, das traders e, de outras organizações que compõem a rede. As análises permitiram identificar que a Fairtrade International é o centro estratégico da rede Fairtrade Frutas Frescas, o qual é responsável pela coordenação de toda a rede. Também foram identificados três tipos de contratos envolvendo as organizações produtoras (OPs), os quais ligam as OPs à rede Fairtrade, aos traders, e aos seus importadores. A relação que surge nas transações contratuais na rede é de dependência trilateral e os contratos são do tipo neoclássico. Frisa-se que, como o sistema Fairtrade prima pelas relações duradouras entre produtores e importadores, espera-se que os contratos evoluam de neoclássicos para relacionais, porém, a pesquisa evidenciou que a frequência dos contratos identificados é discreta. Também, ficou claro que a Fairtrade International vem, em suas ações, priorizando o atendimento de critérios de conformidade por parte dos produtores, em detrimento do fortalecimento das relações contratuais existentes na rede. / The Fairtrade system is an alternative market based on fairer trade relations, aiming at greater equity in the international market, through sustainable development of marginalized producers and workers, especially, from the southern hemisphere. The constitution of certified commodity markets do not occur in an instinctive form, but through negotiation among involved actors. As these markets are adjusted, new governance structures emerge and are re-structured to adapt to new instituted demands and dynamics (LEME et al. 2013). In Brazil, Fairtrade certification is employed in diverse products, however the most prominent commodities are coffee, orange juice and fresh fruits. Some academic studies have been developed to better understand the Fairtrade certification in the coffee and orange juice sectors, however there is a lack of this type of study in fresh fruits in the national level. To address this lacuna, this research analyzes the Brazilian Fairtrade certified fresh fruit network. To carry out this study, the Transaction Cost Theory was utilized to identify and analyze the existing contracts in the Fairtrade certified networks and to demonstrate the activities of Fairtrade International in Brazil. This research analyzed secondary data and interviews with representatives from 13 producer organizations, Fairtrade International, traders and key actors of the network. The research findings identified that Fairtrade International is the fresh fruit network strategic center, responsible for the coordination of the entire network. It also identified three types of contracts involving producer organizations (POs), linking the POs to the Fairtrade network, trades and their importers. The relations that emerged from the network contractual transitions are trilateral dependency and the contracts are the neoclassical type. It is important to note that Fairtrade focuses on long-lasting relations between producers and importers, thus it is expected that the contracts evolve from neoclassical to relational, however this research evinced that the frequency of contracts identified in this study are discrete. It also became clear that Fairtrade International, with their actions, is prioritizing the producer criteria conformity in detriment of the strengthening of relational contracts in the network.

O sistema Fairtrade é um comércio alternativo, norteado nas relações de troca mais justas visando uma maior equidade no mercado internacional, por meio do desenvolvimento sustentável dos produtores e trabalhadores, tidos como marginalizados, especialmente, do Hemisfério Sul. Ressalta-se que a constituição dos mercados de produtos certificados não ocorre de forma instintiva, e sim, de forma negociada entre os agentes envolvidos. Conforme esses mercados são ajustados, novas estruturas de governança surgem e são reestruturados para se adequar às novas demandas e dinâmicas instituídas (LEME et al, 2013). No Brasil, a certificação Fairtrade é aplicada em diversos produtos; contudo, os que mais se destacam são o café, o suco de laranja e as frutas frescas. Alguns estudos acadêmicos já foram desenvolvidos para melhor compreender a referida certificação no café e suco de laranja; no entanto, no Brasil, ainda carece desses estudos voltados para as frutas frescas, em esfera nacional. Pensando nessa carência, a presente pesquisa tomou como objeto de análise a rede Fairtrade Frutas Frescas Brasileiras. Para a realização de tal estudo, foi utilizada a Teoria dos Custos de Transação, com o intuito de identificar e analisar os contratos existentes na referida rede, bem como verificar a atuação da Fairtrade International. Nesta pesquisa, foram considerados dados secundários e entrevistas com os representantes das 13(treze) organizações produtoras contempladas neste estudo, assim como da Fairtrade International, das traders e, de outras organizações que compõem a rede. As análises permitiram identificar que a Fairtrade International é o centro estratégico da rede Fairtrade Frutas Frescas, o qual é responsável pela coordenação de toda a rede. Também foram identificados três tipos de contratos envolvendo as organizações produtoras (OPs), os quais ligam as OPs à rede Fairtrade, aos traders, e aos seus importadores. A relação que surge nas transações contratuais na rede é de dependência trilateral e os contratos são do tipo neoclássico. Frisa-se que, como o sistema Fairtrade prima pelas relações duradouras entre produtores e importadores, espera-se que os contratos evoluam de neoclássicos para relacionais, porém, a pesquisa evidenciou que a frequência dos contratos identificados é discreta. Também, ficou claro que a Fairtrade International vem, em suas ações, priorizando o atendimento de critérios de conformidade por parte dos produtores, em detrimento do fortalecimento das relações contratuais existentes na rede. / The Fairtrade system is an alternative market based on fairer trade relations, aiming at greater equity in the international market, through sustainable development of marginalized producers and workers, especially, from the southern hemisphere. The constitution of certified commodity markets do not occur in an instinctive form, but through negotiation among involved actors. As these markets are adjusted, new governance structures emerge and are re-structured to adapt to new instituted demands and dynamics (LEME et al. 2013). In Brazil, Fairtrade certification is employed in diverse products, however the most prominent commodities are coffee, orange juice and fresh fruits. Some academic studies have been developed to better understand the Fairtrade certification in the coffee and orange juice sectors, however there is a lack of this type of study in fresh fruits in the national level. To address this lacuna, this research analyzes the Brazilian Fairtrade certified fresh fruit network. To carry out this study, the Transaction Cost Theory was utilized to identify and analyze the existing contracts in the Fairtrade certified networks and to demonstrate the activities of Fairtrade International in Brazil. This research analyzed secondary data and interviews with representatives from 13 producer organizations, Fairtrade International, traders and key actors of the network. The research findings identified that Fairtrade International is the fresh fruit network strategic center, responsible for the coordination of the entire network. It also identified three types of contracts involving producer organizations (POs), linking the POs to the Fairtrade network, trades and their importers. The relations that emerged from the network contractual transitions are trilateral dependency and the contracts are the neoclassical type. It is important to note that Fairtrade focuses on long-lasting relations between producers and importers, thus it is expected that the contracts evolve from neoclassical to relational, however this research evinced that the frequency of contracts identified in this study are discrete. It also became clear that Fairtrade International, with their actions, is prioritizing the producer criteria conformity in detriment of the strengthening of relational contracts in the network.

A crescente tendência para o livre comércio e o elevado ritmo em que as economias nacionais estão se transformando em globais, têm aumentado a importância do construto imagem de país, uma vez que, para muitos autores, a imagem impacta na forma com que os consumidores avaliam os produtos produzidos em diferentes países e assim influencia seu comportamento de compra. No entanto, na literatura, observa-se uma divergência no campo teórico desse conceito. Para muitos autores, apesar do conhecimento a respeito da sua importância, não é observado um consenso na forma de conceituar e operacionalizar o construto. Assim, não há nenhuma análise sistemática dos conceitos existentes e, sequer uma forma melhor de operacionalizá-los. Desse modo, o presente trabalho tem como objetivo verificar se diferentes formas de operacionalização do construto imagem de país levam a resultados semelhantes. Para isso, foram comparadas duas escalas, utilizadas para mensurar a imagem do país de origem, a fim de verificar, de forma empírica, o comportamento dessas escalas, já que são pertencentes a uma mesma base teórica e assim contribuir para uma discussão, mais profunda, a respeito da confiabilidade e validade dos estudos sobre imagem de país. Embora existam muitos artigos a respeito da imagem dos países mundialmente, o Brasil foi foco de poucos trabalhos. Assim, o presente trabalho também possui como objetivo mensurar a imagem do Brasil. O Brasil é o detentor do maior saldo da balança comercial agrícola do mundo e possui um histórico de superávits. Tendo em vista o exposto acima, pretende-se observar qual é a imagem que o Brasil possui em relação aos consumidores ingleses, que foram escolhidos por sua relevância no comércio internacional, estando em quarto lugar no ranking dos principais países importadores de produtos agrícolas do mundo. O método utilizado foi o transversal simples (também chamado de Levantamento ou Survey). A pesquisa caracteriza-se como sendo quantitativa e foram coletados 223 questionários, junto aos estudantes da Faculdade Royal Agricultural College, localizada em Cirencester, Gloucestershire na Inglaterra. Para comparar as escalas, foram agrupadas as escalas de Pisharodi e Parameswaran (1992) e Nebenzahl, Jaffe e Usunier (2003). Como resultado, foi obtido para a escala de Pisharodi e Parameswaran (1992), 5 dimensões (atributos especificos do produto, faceta pessoas, faceta interação, atrbutos desejaveis do produto e atributos indesejáveis do produto) e para a escala de Nebenzahl, Jaffe e Usunier (2003) 3 dimensões (desafortunado, busca por qualidade e satisfação e busca por valor econômico), sendo que a imagem resultante da primeira escala do Brasil foi negativa e para a segunda escala positiva. Com esses resultados fez-se, ainda, análise de cluster não hierárquico forçando dois clusters para cada escala e foi observada novamente uma diferença nos resultados, uma vez que os respondentes foram agrupados de forma diferente em cada escala, o que significa que uma mesma pessoa na escala de Pisharodi e Parameswaran (1992) foi enquadrada no cluster de imagem negativa e na escala de Nebenzahl, Jaffe e Usunier (2003) essa mesma pessoa foi incluída no cluster de imagem positiva. Dessa forma, comparando-se as escalas, 61% das pessoas não foram enquadradas da mesma forma pelo cluster e foi preciso rejeitar a hipótese inicial do trabalho (o resultado da aplicação das duas escalas seria semelhante). Assim, a pesquisa contribuiu para o avanço da discussão nas lacunas existentes sobre o tema imagem de país, além de fornecer informações que podem servir, tanto para profissionais de marketing como para agentes do governo, que visam fortalecer a imagem do Brasil. Como limitações do trabalho, podem ser citadas: a comparação de apenas duas das escalas existentes na literatura, a extensão do questionário e o foco dado apenas ao Brasil. / The increasing trend towards free trade and the high rate at which national economies are becoming global, has shown an increase in the importance of the country image contruct, since, for many authors, the image impacts the way in which consumers evaluate the products manufactured in different countries and thus influences their buying behavior. However, in the literature, there is divergence regarding the concept. For many authors, despite the knowledge about its importance, there is no consensus on how to conceptualize and operationalize the construct. Thus, there is no systematic analysis of existing concepts, and no best way to operationalize them. Thus, this study aims to determine whether different forms of measurement of the \"country image\" construct would lead to similar results. For this, we compared two scales used to measure the image of the country of origin, to verify, empirically, the behavior of these scales, since they are owned by the same theoretical basis and thus contribute to a deeper discussion, regarding the reliability and validity of studies on country image. Although there are many articles about the image of the world countries, Brazil was the focus of few of such studies. Thus, this work also has aimed to measure the image of Brazil. This country is the largest holder of agricultural trade balance of the world and has a history of surplus. So, we intend to observe which is the image of Brazil in relation to British consumers, who were chosen for their relevance in international trade, while it is ranking fourth among the main importing countries of agricultural products in the world. Survey method was applied, and the research is characterized as being quantitative and 223 questionnaires were collected, with students of the Royal Agricultural College, located in Cirencester, Gloucestershire in England. To compare the scales, Pisharodi and Parameswaran (1992) scales and Nebenzahl, Jaffe and Usunier (2003) scales were grouped. As a result, five dimensions (specific product attributes, people facet, interaction facet, desirable product attributes and undesirable product attributes) were obtained for the Pisharodi and Parameswaran (1992) scale, and the scale of Nebenzahl, Jaffe and Usunier (2003) obtained 3 dimensions (underdog, quality and satisfaction seeker and economic value seeker). A negative image of Brazil was observerd using the Pisharodi and Parameswaran (1992) scale and for the Nebenzahl, Jaffe and Usunier (2003) scales a positive image of Brazil was seen. With these results, yet, a non-hierarchical cluster analysis was made, forcing two clusters for each scale and again there was a difference in the results, since the respondents were grouped differently in each scale, which means that a person who was framed in the cluster of negative image in Pisharodi and Parameswaran (1992) scale was framed in another cluster of positive image in Nebenzahl, Jaffe and Usunier (2003) scale. Thus, comparing the scales, 61% of people were not framed the same way by the cluster and we had to reject the initial hypothesis of the work, that the result of applying two diferent scales would be similar. The research contributed to the advancement of gaps in the discussion on the country image theory, and provides information that may be useful both to marketers and government officials, aimed at strengthening the image of Brazil. The limitations of the work may be cited: the comparison of only two scales of the literature, the length of the questionnaire and the focus given only to Brazil.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Plant Production)) -- University of Limpopo, 2013 / Two phytonematicides were researched and developed from fermented crude extracts of wild watermelon (Cucumis africanus) and wild cucumber (Cucumis myriocarpus) fruits for use as alternatives to methyl bromide in managing root-knot (Meloidogyne species) nematodes in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) production. Fruits of C. africanus contain cucurbitacin B (C32H48O8), while those of C. myriocarpus contain cucurbitacin A, which comprises cucumin (C27H40O9) and leptodermin (C27H38O8). Phytonematicides from C. africanus and C. myriocarpus fruits are referred to as nemafric-B and nemarioc-A, respectively. The two phytonematicides, due to their origin from plant species with allelochemicals, have high potential of being phytotoxic to crops. The use of the Curve-fitting Allelochemical Response Dosage (CARD) computer-based model assisted in the establishment of concentrations which were stimulatory to growth of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants, while exhibiting nematoxic properties to Meloidogyne species. The two phytonematicides were developed from crude extracts of fruits dried at 52˚C in air-forced ovens and ground in a Wiley mill through 1-mm-opening sieves. However, equipment for drying and grinding fruits would not be accessible to smallholder farmers who wished to prepare their own products on-farm. The objective of this study therefore, was to determine whether nemafric-BL and nemarioc-AL produced from fresh fruit of the two Cucumis species would be suitable for use (i.e. non phytotoxic) in tomato production for managing population densities of M. incognita race 2. In order to distinguish the products of fresh (F) fruits from those of dried (D) fruits, they were code-named nemafricF-BL or nemariocF-BL and nemafricD-BL or nemariocD AL, respectively, where G and L denoted granular and liquid formulations, respectively. Tomato cv. ‘Floradade’ seedlings were infested with 3 000 eggs and second-stage xv juveniles of M. incognita race 2. An equivalent of 40 g and 80 g dried fruit mass of nemafric-B and nemarioc-A, namely, 284 g and 411 g fresh fruit mass for nemafric-B and nemarioc-A, respectively, were separately fermented using EMROSA effective micro-organisms mixed with 16 L chlorine-free tapwater in 20 L container for 14 days at ± 25˚C, allowing pH to gradually decline to ± 3.7. Separate experiments for each product run concurrently. Treatments, namely, 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and 64% concentrations, where for instance, 2% = 20 ml/1000 ml x 100, were arranged in a randomised complete block design, with 10 replications. Blocking in the greenhouse was done for wind direction which was regularly erected by fans for cooling down the greenhouse. At 56 days after weekly application of each treatment, flower number, fruit number, dry shoot mass, dry root mass, dry fruit mass, plant height, stem diameter and nematode numbers were each subjected to analysis of variance. Nematode data were, prior to analysis, transformed using log10(x + 1), but untransformed data were reported. Using the sum of squares, nemafric-BL and nemarioc-AL treatments affected dry root mass, dry shoot mass, flowers number, fruit number, plant height and stem diameter. Nemafric-BL contributed 67%, 78%, 58%, 43%, 60% and 26%, while nemarioc-AL contributed 71%, 61%, 19%, 35%, 34% and 24% to total treatment variation of the six respective variables. Plant variables with significant (P ≤ 0.05) treatment effects were further subjected to the CARD model to generate seven biological indices, with three distinct phases, namely, stimulation, neutral and inhibition phases. Using the quantified stimulation phase, the mean concentration stimulation range (MCSR) was computed for each variable using two biological indices, namely, threshold stimulation point (Dm) and saturation point (Rh). The CARD model explained 98%, 99%, 98% and 98% of the quadratic models of dry root mass, dry shoot mass, plant height and stem diameter, xvi respectively, against increasing concentrations of nemarioc-AL. Similarly, the CARD model explained 99%, 96%, 84% and 93% of total treatment variation in the respective plant variables. The integrated MCSR [MSCR = Dm + (Rh/2)] for nemafric-BL on tomato plants was 7%, while that for nemarioc-AL was 4%. In the CARD model, the overall sensitivities (∑k) of tomato plants exposed to nemafric-BL and nemarioc-AL were 3 units and 5 units, respectively. Tomato plants were therefore, less sensitive to nemarioc-AL since it had higher ∑k value than nemafric-BL. At 4% nemarioc-AL and at 7% nemafric-BL, the two phytonematicides were each highly suppressive to population densities of M. incognita race 2. In conclusion, on the basis of non-phytotoxicity of the computed MCSR values and their suppressive effects on population densities of M. incognita race 2, the smallholder farmers could produce nemafric-BL and nemarioc-AL phytonematicides on-farm. However, the production of the two products from fresh fruits would not be sustainable since fruits of the two Cucumis species are highly seasonal due to the high incidence of post-harvest decays. / The Land Bank Chair of Agriculture – University of Limpopo, Limpopo Agro-processing Technology Station,and the Flemish Interuniversity Council of Belgium

U.S. imports of fresh fruits and vegetables have increased sharply since the late 1980's. With increased imports come increased concerns that pests and diseases may infest shipments of fresh agricultural products. To address this concern, USDA's APHIS implements phytosanitary measures that mitigate pest and disease risks. These regulations vary from documentation requirements, inspection, or requiring that shipments receive a phytosanitary treatment. A growing body of literature attempts to assess the generic trade flow effects of SPS measures. Still, little evidence is available to shed light on the nature, size, and scope of SPS standards and their role as "trade barriers" versus "trade catalysts." This thesis fills the void in the literature in two respects. First, a novel database on phytosanitary measures pertaining to U.S. imports of 47 fresh fruit and vegetable products from 95 countries is developed for the period 1996-2007. This disaggregated approach allows for the effects of specific phytosanitary treatments to be identified. Second, following recent literature, the issue of "zeros" is addressed while estimating a gravity model of international trade. The findings suggest that phytosanitary treatments initially inhibit fresh fruit and vegetable imports. However, their trade reducing effects are uneven across product sectors, development status categories and treatment types. Finally, globally large exporters facing a treatment requirement ship more fresh fruits and vegetable relative to small exporters facing the same regulation, suggesting the role of SPS measures as "trade barriers" versus "trade catalysts" depends on the relative size of the exporter in the global market. / Master of Science

The first study investigates the factors that impact the duration of U.S. fresh fruit and vegetable imports. We employ both survival analysis (Kaplan Meier estimates and Cox proportional hazards model) as well as count data models. Our results indicate that SPS treatment requirements positively impact the duration of trade while new market access has the opposite effect. Other factors typically included in trade duration models (such as: GDP, transportation costs, tariff rates, etc.) were also investigated. We also employ a probit model to understand the factors impacting the probability that a country selects into exporting fresh fruits and vegetables to the United States. The second study estimates the goods-time elasticity of substitution for Food Stamp/SNAP participants versus non participants. We find that the elasticity of substitution for SNAP participants is not statistically different from zero. This indicates that SNAP participants have Leontief production function in household food production, implying that increasing the amount of SNAP benefits paid to participants will not lead to more food production if the time households dedicate to food preparation remains unchanged. This finding extends the analysis done by Baral, Davis and You (2011) and offers insights for policies related to the SNAP program. / Master of Science