Le Cheddar est le principal fromage produit et consommé au Canada. Les ferments utilisés pour sa fabrication renferment principalement des souches de lactocoques sélectionnées pour leur pouvoir acidifiant ainsi que pour leurs propriétés aromatiques et technologiques particulières. Neuf souches de bactéries lactiques, isolées de ferments traditionnels utilisés jusque dans les années 60 ont démontré la capacité de produire un composé bioactif, l'acide y-aminobutyrique (GABA), un neurotransmetteur agissant au niveau du système nerveux central. Des émdes réalisées chez les humains ont démontré que la consommation de lait fermenté contenant du GABA engendrait une diminution de la pression artérielle. Le but de ce projet a été d'évaluer la capacité de ces 9 souches de L. lactis ssp lactis à produire du GABA dans du fromage de type Cheddar. La capacité des souches GABA, proteinases négatives, à croître en présence de souches commerciales de L. lactis ssp cremoris proteinases positives, a été évaluée par un test de biocompatibilité et a permis la sélection des souches GABA A23 et H13. Par la suite, l'effet de différents paramètres d'affinage (3 pH, 2 ratios sel/humidité, 2 concentrations en glutamate) sur la production de GABA a été évalué à l'aide d'un système de caillé modèle. Les conditions optimales ont été déterminées (pH 4,9 ratio sel/humidité 3,5%, ratio souches GABA/W62 2 :2) et ont été reproduites en usine pilote pour la production de Cheddar. Les résultats démontrent que la composition, les propriétés rhéologiques et sensorielles des fromages renfermant du GABA ne sont pas significativement différentes des fromages témoins et une quantité de 0,35 mg de GABA/g de fromage a pu être produite après 56 jours d'affinage.

Epilepsy is a neurological disorder that causes recurrent and unprovoked seizures due to imbalances in synaptic transmission in distinct regions of the brain. In both human patients and animal models of epilepsy, there is a marked increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a critical signaling molecule in the brain that contributes to two divergent pathways important to disease pathology: 1) the regulation of type A receptors for the major inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA (GABAARs), and 2) aberrant neurogenesis with ectopic expression of new neurons from progenitor cells that disrupt neural network activity in the hippocampus. The first part of my thesis addresses how neurons regulate levels of α1-containing GABAARs through BDNF signaling at its receptors, tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) and p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR). I hypothesized and showed that BDNF, working at TrkB, rapidly activates the Janus kinase and signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK/STAT) pathway in neurons and identified a novel intracellular receptor signaling complex composed of p75NTR and JAK2 that is present in neuronal processes, cell body, and nucleus. Based on this finding, we suggest that an intracellular p75NTR/JAK2 signalsome recruits STAT3, a transcriptional activator of the gene coding for the cAMP inducible early repressor (ICER) that blocks synthesis of α1 subunits reducing synaptic GABAARs in response to status epilepticus. This model is consistent with our collaborative studies that show a JAK2 inhibitor, WP1066, inhibits development of spontaneous seizures in an epilepsy model and my observation that WP1066 degrades JAK2 protein in primary neurons. The second part of my thesis addresses BDNF regulation of the Late SV40 Factor (LSF), a ubiquitous transcription factor that regulates cell cycle progression and survival. I show that BDNF through the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway selectively phosphorylates LSF at serine 291 (p291LSF) and that p291LSF is present throughout neurogenesis, increases with status epilepticus in the hippocampus, and is highest in structures associated with neurogenesis (such as olfactory bulb and hippocampus when compared to cortex). Taken together, these results suggest LSF may play an important role in neuronal development and potentially in epilepsy, providing an additional target for future therapeutic intervention. / 2016-12-15T00:00:00Z

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Chlorpyrifos is a widely used organophosphate insecticide, functioning through the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase. Recent studies report negative long-lasting biochemical and behavioral effects at levels without acetylcholinesterase inhibition. Our lab studies have identified the endocannabinoid system as a target for OP low-dose neurotoxicity. This thesis identifies the proteins and their associated neurotransmitter systems in the hippocampus that have been affected by low dose developmental exposure to the OP insecticide CPF. Male rat pups were treated from postnatal day 10 (PND) - PND16 with either corn oil (vehicle), 0.75 mg/kg of CPF, or 0.02 mg/kg of PF-04457845, a specific fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor. On PND38, rats were sacrificed for hippocampal extraction, and shotgun proteomics was used for protein expression. DAVID and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis software detected differentially expressed proteins such as Neuroligin-2 and Synaptotagmin 2, and disrupted signaling pathways such as ephrin B signaling, synaptogenesis signaling, and glutamate receptor signaling. Taken together, our data suggests that CPF reduces glutaminergic signaling pathways, greatly reducing long-term potentiation, prohibiting proper synapse formation, and therefore disrupting the proper functioning of the hippocampus.

Brucella abortus and Agrobacterium tumefaciens are pathogenic bacteria that infect animals and plants, respectively. These bacteria are genetically similar and are found within the same Class, Alphaproteobacteria, and Order, Rhizobiales, of the domain Eubacteria; however, they survive and replicate in vastly different environmental niches. In Order to adapt to different environments, bacteria utilize several mechanisms of gene regulation to tightly control gene expression. Two of these mechanisms include transcriptional regulators and small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs), which can activate and repress gene expression through various interactions with DNA, mRNA, and proteins. A well-conserved transcriptional regulator among the Rhizobiales is VtlR, a virulence-associated transcriptional LysR regulator. The objectives of this dissertation were three fold: 1) characterize the known regulon of VtlR in B. abortus with regards to gene regulatory function and virulence, 2) determine the regulon of VtlR in A. tumefaciens and define the mechanism by which this regulation occurs, and 3) define the role of an ABC-type transport system indirectly regulated by VtlR in B. abortus that putatively imports the non-proteinogenic amino acid gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). VtlR was characterized in B. abortus as a virulence-associated transcriptional regulator that directly activates four genes: the sRNA AbcR2, and the three small hypothetical proteins BAB1_0914, BAB2_0512, and BAB2_0574; and deletion of vtlR led to a significant defect in the ability of B. abortus to cause infection in vitro and in vivo. Since dysregulation of abcR2 alone could not account for the defect in virulence, it was hypothesized that one or all three hypothetical proteins could be responsible for a virulence phenotype observed in ΔvtlR. This turned out to not be the case, as a deletion of the entire VtlR regulon displayed no difference in virulence compared to the parental strain. Further characterization of the small hypothetical proteins is outlined in Chapter 2 and the data revealed bona fide translation of each small protein, and the deletion strain of the VtlR regulon displayed a growth defect when grown in the presence of the sugar fucose. This phenotype was subsequently observed in ΔvtlR as well. This led to the identification of a putative fucose transport and metabolism locus in B. abortus that has yet to be studied. In A. tumefaciens, VtlR is necessary for proper attachment to plant cells and biofilm formation and regulates over 200 genes, significantly more than the four genes VtlR regulates in B. abortus. The mechanism by which this occurs was unknown, and the relationship between VtlR and AbcR1 or AbcR2 was uncharacterized. The data in Chapter 3 outline the VtlR network by showing that VtlR regulation of myriad genes in A. tumefaciens is primarily indirect via the direct regulation of a few sRNAs. This direct interaction was shown experimentally and a VtlR binding box was identified in the A. tumefaciens genome. This project outlines the divergence of a regulatory element between phylogenetically related organisms that occupy different environmental niches. The AbcR sRNAs are conserved throughout the Rhizobiales and regulate numerous ABC-type transport systems within these bacteria. In A. tumefaciens, one of these transport systems specifically transports the amino acds proline and GABA. B. abortus contains homologs of this system, which led to the hypothesis that the brucellae may also transport GABA but for a yet unknown purpose. The data in Chapter 4 revealed that B. abortus also transports GABA in vitro and this transport is under the regulation of AbcR1 and AbcR2. This transport was increased under extreme nutrient limitations and was uninhibited by the presence of other amino acids. Metabolic studies showed GABA is not utilized by B. abortus under aerobic conditions, and transcriptomic data revealed increased expression of several loci in the presence of GABA. Altogether, this study uncovers a putative signaling role for the amino acid GABA that has been understudied in bacterial pathogens that infect animal hosts. Overall, the work presented in this dissertation is focused on further elucidating the biological role of downstream regulatory targets of both VtlR and the sRNAs AbcR1 and AbcR2 in the related organisms Brucella abortus and Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Findings show that while there are similarities between the two systems, there are also many differences that may be attributed to the vastly different lifestyles of each organism. / Doctor of Philosophy / Brucella abortus and Agrobacterium tumefaciens are two highly related bacterial pathogens that infect mammals and plants, respectively. Although genetically related, both organisms survive and replicate in vastly different environmental niches with one living in the soil (i.e., A. tumefaciens) and the other living within immune cells of the infected host (i.e., B. abortus). In Order to quickly adapt to changing environmental conditions, the bacteria must rapidly control gene expression through multiple regulatory mechanisms. The works presented in this dissertation will focus on further characterizing one of these regulatory systems and comparing the homologous systems shared by B. abortus and A. tumefaciens. This includes uncovering a putative sugar transport and metabolism system, as well as discovering the potential for host-pathogen signaling via the well-studied neurotransmitter GABA.

Cognitive dysfunction is a core characteristic of schizophrenia, which can often persist when other symptoms, particularly positive symptoms, may be improved with drug treatment. The non-competitive NMDA receptor antagonist, phencyclidine (PCP), is a psychomotor stimulant drug that has been shown to induce symptoms characteristic of schizophrenia in humans and animals. The aim of these studies was to use the sub-chronic PCP model in rats to investigate cognitive dysfunction in behavioural tests which have been highlighted as relevance by the MATRICS initiative (MATRICS.ucla.edu). The main tests used were attentional set-shifting, operant reversal learning, and novel object recognition tasks. The pharmacology of antipsychotics was studied in the reversal learning task using receptor selective compounds. Following this, experiments were carried out using in vitro electrophysiology and in vivo microdialysis in an attempt to investigate the mechanisms underpinning the PCP-induced cognitive deficits. The attentional set-shifting task is a test of executive function, the extra-dimensional shift (EDS) phase relates to the ability to shift attention to a different stimulus dimension; this is impaired in patients with schizophrenia. The studies presented in chapter 2 showed that sub-chronic PCP administration impaired attentional set-shifting performance selectively in the EDS phase, a deficit which was significantly attenuated by sub-chronic administration of clozapine and risperidone, but not haloperidol. The effect of PCP was also shown to be more robust in female rats compared to males. A deficit in set-shifting ability was also observed in isolation reared rats. However, the deficits produced by PCP were more robust than the deficit produced by isolation rearing. The reversal learning task is another test of executive function. Chapter 3 reported that sub-chronic PCP administration impairs reversal learning ability in an operant task, as demonstrated by reduced percent correct responding in the reversal phase of the reversal learning task. It was found that a D1 agonist (SKF-38398), a 5-HT1A partial agonist (buspirone), a 5-HT2C antagonist (SB-243213A) and an agonist and positive allosteric modulator of the alpha 7 nACh receptor (PNU-282987 and PheTQS respectively) are able to reverse the sub-chronic PCP-induced deficit in reversal learning. Although many antipsychotics have affinity for muscarinic M1 and histamine H1 receptors, selective agents at these receptors were not able to improve the PCP-induced deficit. In chapter 4, the atypical antipsychotics, clozapine and risperidone, when given alone to naïve rats had no effect on reversal learning. Haloperidol when given to naïve rats impaired performance at the highest dose. Sub-chronic PCP was again found to impair reversal learning performance. Investigative experiments revealed that the 2 min time-out could be important as a cue. Following a double reversal, olanzapine-treated rats lost the ability to switch between the rules, whereas clozapine and risperidone-treated rats could perform the double reversal. Experiments with the extended (15 min) reversal phase could allow the investigation of the time-course effects of antipsychotics or selective compounds. The studies presented in chapter 5 found a reduction in gamma oscillations in the CA3 region of the hippocampus, following sub-chronic PCP treatment (2-5 weeks post treatment) that was paralleled by a deficit in parvalbumin immunoreactive (IR) cell density, at a similar time point (2 weeks post treatment). In contrast, a time-dependent increase in gamma oscillations was observed (6-8 weeks post treatment), at which point parvalbumin IR cell density was unchanged (8 weeks post treatment). Gamma oscillations were unchanged in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) following the PCP treatment regime. Locomotor activity tests were also carried out to ensure that the sub-chronic PCP treatment was successful. In-vivo microdialysis revealed that vehicle-treated rats show an increase in dopamine in the PFC which is selective for the retention trial of the novel object recognition task. PCP-treated rats were unable to distinguish between the novel and familiar objects and the increase in dopamine observed in vehicle rats was absent. As a control experiment it was also shown that sub-chronic PCP did not induce anxiety-like symptoms in the elevated plus maze and open field tests. These studies suggest that sub-chronic PCP induces cognitive deficits in behavioural tasks, and these deficits may be due to GABAergic mediated processes in the hippocampus and dopaminergic dysfunction in the PFC. These behavioural and neurochemical results are concurrent to findings observed in schizophrenia.

Dans les processus d'apprentissage corticaux complexes, divers mécanismes inhibiteurs GABAergiques jouent un rôle crucial, avec le récepteur GABA$\sf{_A}$ contenant la sous-unité alpha5 (α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R) occupant le devant de la scène. Ce récepteur est situé de manière proéminente dans le domaine extrasynaptique des cellules pyramidales hippocampiques CA1 et néocorticales de la couche 5, où il orchestre la conductance inhibitrice tonique, influençant potentiellement la plasticité synaptique et différents types d'apprentissage. Malgré son importance, l'expression synaptique et la fonction spécifique de l'α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R restent inconnues. Pour répondre à ces questions, nous avons d'abord mené une étude approfondie dans le stratum oriens/alveus (O/A) de la région hippocampique CA1 en utilisant l'immunohistochimie, des enregistrements patch-clamp de cellules entières et une stimulation optogénétique dans des tranches d'hippocampe de souris. Nos résultats ont révélé une expression préférentielle de l'α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R dans les synapses inhibitrices formées par les terminaisons positives au peptide intestinal vasoactif (VIP+) et la calrétinine (CR) sur les dendrites des interneurones exprimant la somatostatine (SOM). À l'inverse, les synapses formées par les entrées inhibitrices positives de la parvalbumine (PV) présentaient une expression minime ou inexistante de l'α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R. En approfondissant les implications fonctionnelles, nous avons exploré le rôle spécifique de l'α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R dans l'apprentissage spatial et le comportement lié à l'anxiété à l'aide de tests comportementaux et de manipulations chimiogénétiques. Notamment, l'inhibition de l'α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R chez les souris contrôles a amélioré l'apprentissage spatial mais a induit un comportement anxieux. Par contre, chez les souris avec les interneurones VIP inactivées, l'amélioration de l'apprentissage spatial a été maintenue sans l'anxiété associée, mettant l'accent sur le rôle de l'α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R localisé au niveau des synapses VIP+ dans l'anxiété. Deuxièmement, en nous concentrant sur les circuits corticaux, nous avons étudié l'équilibre délicat entre l'excitation et l'inhibition dans le cortex moteur en relation avec les troubles neurologiques génétiques. Notre étude a révélé une hyperexcitabilité du circuit chez des souris femelles asymptomatiques portant l'expansion répétée du cadre de lecture ouvert 72 (C9orf72) du chromosome 9 associée à la sclérose latérale amyotrophique (SLA) et au trouble de dégénérescence lobaire fronto-temporale (DLFT). Malgré l'absence de symptômes du SLA manifestes, ces souris présentaient une anomalie du cortex moteur, caractérisée par une réduction du nombre de neurones pyramidaux de la couche 5 du cortex moteur primaire (M1). Les neurones survivants présentaient une fonction préservée de l'α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R mais une diminution de l'inhibition, ce qui entraînait une activation accrue de M1 lors de la locomotion animale à grande vitesse. Collectivement, cette double exploration de la fonction α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R dans les circuits hippocampiques et néocorticaux fait non seulement progresser notre compréhension des mécanismes inhibiteurs aux niveaux moléculaires et synaptiques, mais contribue également à une vision globale du paysage complexe des troubles neurologiques génétiques et de leurs mécanismes sous-jacents. / In the intricate landscape of cortical learning processes, diverse GABAergic inhibitory mechanisms play a crucial role, with the alpha5 subunit-containing GABA$\sf{_A}$ receptor (α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R) taking center stage. This receptor is prominently situated in the extrasynaptic domain of CA1 hippocampal and layer 5 neocortical pyramidal cells, where it orchestrates tonic inhibitory conductance, potentially influencing synaptic plasticity and different types of learning. Despite its significance, the synaptic expression and site-specific function of α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R remain elusive. To unravel this mystery, we, first, conducted a comprehensive investigation in the CA1 stratum oriens/alveus (O/A) utilizing immunohistochemistry, whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, and optogenetic stimulation in mouse hippocampal slices. Our findings revealed a preferential targeting of α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R to inhibitory synapses formed by vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)- and calretinin (CR)-positive terminals onto dendrites of somatostatin-expressing interneurons. Conversely, synapses established by parvalbumin-positive (PV+) inhibitory inputs showed minimal or no presence of α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R. Delving deeper into the functional implications, we explored the input-specific role of α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R in spatial learning and anxiety-related behavior using behavioral testing and chemogenetic manipulations. Intriguingly, inhibiting α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R in control mice enhanced spatial learning but induced anxiety-like behavior. Remarkably, in mice with inactivated CA1 VIP input, spatial learning improvement was maintained without the associated anxiety, emphasizing the role of α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R in phasic inhibition via VIP input to interneurons regulating anxiety. Second, shifting our focus to cortical circuits, we investigated the delicate balance between excitation and inhibition in the motor cortex in relation to genetic neurological disorders. Our study uncovered circuit hyperexcitability in asymptomatic female mice carrying the chromosome 9 open reading frame 72 (C9orf72) repeat expansion associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) spectrum disorder. Despite lacking overt symptoms, these mice exhibited abnormal motor cortex output, characterized by a reduction in the number of primary motor cortex (M1) layer 5 pyramidal neurons. Surviving neurons displayed preserved function of the α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R but decreased inhibitory drive, resulting in heightened M1 output during high-speed animal locomotion. Collectively, this dual exploration of the α5-GABA$\sf{_A}$R function in hippocampal and neocortical circuits not only advances our understanding of molecular and synaptic inhibitory mechanisms but also contributes to a comprehensive insight into the intricate landscape of genetic neurological disorders and their underlying mechanisms.

Le bulbe olfactif (BO) est un réseau neuronal complexe qui traite et transfert les informations olfactives aux structures corticales supérieures. Le réseau bulbaire est composé d’une large population de cellules granulaires (CGs) GABAergiques qui sont continuellement renouvelées tout au long de la vie de l’animal. Cette population peut exprimer différents marqueurs neuronaux comme la calretinine (CR+) et la CaMKIIα (CaMKIIα+), mais jusqu’à présent les études ayant eues pour but de comprendre le rôle des CGs dans le BO n’ont pas pris en considération cette hétérogénéité. Cependant, il est possible que différentes sous-populations de CGs présentent des propriétés morpho-fonctionnelles différentes et jouent un rôle spécifique dans le comportement olfactif. Ici nous comparons les caractéristiques morphologiques et eléctrophysiologiques des cellules CR+ générées chez l’adulte versus les cellules qui ne n’expriment pas la calretinine (CR−), ainsi que des cellules CaMKIIα+ générées chez l’adulte versus les cellules qui ne l’expriment pas (CaMKIIα−). Nous démontrons que les CGs CR+ et les CGs CaMKIIα+ présentent des morphologies similaires mais reçoivent moins de courants inhibiteurs que les cellules négatives. Nous révélons également qu’au sein d’une même souspopulation, des cellules générées pendant le développement ou bien générées chez l’adulte ont les mêmes propriétés morpho-fonctionnelles. De plus, nous démontrons par quantification de l’expression de gènes à expression précoce immédiate ainsi que par l’inhibition de sous-populations de CGs à l’aide d’outils pharmacogénétiques combiné à des tests de comportement l’implication spécifique des cellules CR+ et des cellules CaMKIIα+ dans la discrimination olfactive spontanée et suite à un apprentissage associatif. Dans le dernier chapitre de la section Résultat, nous révélons l’existence d’une nouvelle forme de plasticité structurelle présente uniquement sur les CGs générées chez l’adulte, permettant la formation de nouvelles synapses dans un lapse de temps très court. Nous montrons que les épines disposent de fins filopodes sur leurs têtes qui scrutent l’environnement et induisent une relocalisation des épines dépendamment de l’activité. Nous montrons également que ce phénomène dépend de l’activation des récepteurs AMPA et TrkB se trouvant sur les CGs par le glutamate et le BDNF libéré par les cellules mitrales. / The olfactory bulb (OB) is a complex neuronal network which processes and transfers olfactory information to higher cortical structures. The bulbar network is composed of a large population of GABAergic granule cells (GCs) which is continuously renewed throughout animal lifetime. This population can express diverse neurochemical markers such as calretinin (CR) and CaMKIIα, but so far most of the studies that aimed to unveil the role of GCs in the OB and odor behaviors didn’t take into consideration this heterogeneity. However, it is possible that different subpopulations of GCs display different morpho-functional properties and play specific roles in olfactory behaviors. Here we compared morphological and electrophysiological characteristics of adult-born CR-expressing cells versus CR-non expressing cells, as well as CaMKIIα-expressing cells versus CaMKIIαnon expressing cells. We showed that CR-expressing and CaMKIIα-expressing GCs display similar morphological properties but receive less inhibitory inputs than their respective negative counterparts. I also revealed that among the same subpopulation, cells generated during brain development or adulthood, display the same morpho-functional properties. In addition, we demonstrated by immunostaining for early-immediate gene markers as a proxy of neuronal activity and pharmacogenetic inhibition of GC subpopulations combined with behavioral tasks, the specific implication of CR- and CaMKIIα-expressing cells in spontaneous and odor-associative learning discrimination. In the last chapter in Result section, we revealed the existence of a new form of structural plasticity occurring in adult-born, but not early-born GCs, in a very short time. We showed that spines display thin filopodia on their heads which scrutinize the microenvironment and induce spine relocation in an activity-dependent manner. We also revealed that this phenomenon depends on activation of AMPA and TrkB receptors located on GCs by glutamate and BDNF released by active mitral cells.