O fenômeno da dispersão de preços é mais comum do que se supõe a partir da microeconomia básica. O presente estudo busca avaliar a importância dos custos de procura na dispersão de preços de gasolina e etanol no município de São Paulo. Para tanto, são utilizados como referenciais teóricos modelos de dispersão e estudos de estruturas de mercado. A parte empírica contempla duas etapas, na primeira é estimado qual o mercado relevante para o varejo de combustíveis e, posteriormente, a descrição da dispersão na área. Os dados dos preços de varejo são coletados semanalmente desde o ano de 2001 e a série histórica foi cedida pela Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis - ANP. Os resultados das estimações nos mostram que, apesar da dispersão, possivelmente existe maior relação com a heterogeneidade dos estabelecimentos do que com a busca do consumidor. / The price dispersion phenomenon is more common than might be supposed from basic microeconomics. This study aim to evaluate the importance of search costs in the dispersion of fuel prices in São Paulo city. As theoretical reference, we use models of price dispersion and market structures studies. The empirical part has two stages, first is estimated the relevant retail fuel market, and then we describe the dispersion in the area. The retail prices data of gasoline and ethanol have been collected since 2001 and the time series was provided by the Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis - ANP. The results shown that although there is dispersion it is more closely related to the establishments heterogeneity, than with consumer search.

Quando dois ou mais mercados, anteriormente separados, começam a apresentar certa convergência de preços, diz-se que eles estão integrados. Geralmente, os pesquisadores têm objetivado o estudo da integração entre mercados externos e internos (integração espacial) ou entre os diferentes elos de uma cadeia produtiva (integração vertical), mas de um único produto. Após uma importante mudança na tecnologia, concretizada através do lançamento dos motores flex-fuel no Brasil, a presente pesquisa teve por desafio analisar a existência de integração entre os mercados da gasolina e do etanol, dita como "integração de mercados por substituição". Para tal fim, e depois de filtradas as séries de preços mediante os testes de estacionariedade (Dickey-Fuller Aumentado e Phillips-Perron), foi feito uso de modelos de transmissão de preços, mais especificamente os testes de Cointegração, o do Mecanismo de Correção de Erro (MCE) e o da Causalidade. No período em análise (de março de 2003 até julho de 2008), foi constatada a presença de cointegração entre os dois mercados. Também foi observado que um incremento de 1% no preço da gasolina é responsável por um incremento de 2,74% no preço do etanol. Ainda que tenha sido pequeno o parâmetro do Mecanismo de Correção de Erro obtido, ele indica que é possível relacionar o comportamento de curto com o de longo prazo, nas séries analisadas. Dos resultados obtidos, pode-se concluir que os mercados do etanol e da gasolina estão integrados a longo prazo, onde variações no preço da gasolina causam variações no do etanol (GRANGER, 1969). / When two or more markets, previously separated, start showing a price convergence, it is possible to say that they are integrated. Usually, the researchers have focused the integration study between external and internal market (spatial integration) or between the different links of a productive chain (vertical integration), but just of an unique product. After an important technological change, materialized in the releasing of flex-fuel motors in Brazil, this work had as a challenge analyze the existence of the integration between the gasoline and ethanol markets, referred as "integration of substitution markets". Therefore, after filtering the prices series through stationary tests (Augmented Dickey-Fuller and Phillips-Perron), it was made the use of price transmission models, specifically the cointegration tests, and the Error Correction Mechanism (ECM) and the causality. In the analyzed period (from March 2003 to July 2008), it was verified the existence of cointegration between the two markets. Also it was observed that an increase of 1% in the gasoline price is responsible for the increase in 2.74% of the ethanol price. Although it was small the parameter of the correction mechanism in the obtained error, it points out that is possible to relate the behavior in the short and long term, in the analyzed series. Taking in consideration the obtained results, we arrived to the conclusion that the ethanol and gasoline markets are integrated in the long term, where variations in the gasoline price cause variations in the ethanol market.

Submitted by Fabio Sobreira Campos da Costa (fabio.sobreira@ufpe.br) on 2016-06-29T11:48:02Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Dissertação de Mestrado - Lívia Rodrigues e Brito.pdf: 11880513 bytes, checksum: cdf56fe284940b9c31e62271753b913f (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-29T11:48:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Dissertação de Mestrado - Lívia Rodrigues e Brito.pdf: 11880513 bytes, checksum: cdf56fe284940b9c31e62271753b913f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-08-25 / CNPq / A adição de aditivos detergentes dispersantes nas gasolinas brasileiras será obrigatória a partir de julho de 2015. É necessário, portanto, desenvolver uma metodologia que permita quantificar esses aditivos para verificar o cumprimento da lei. Neste trabalho, é proposto um método que associa a técnica do ring-oven com as imagens hiperespectrais no infravermelho próximo (NIR-HI). Como os aditivos são adicionados em baixas concentrações, a técnica do ring-oven foi empregada para concentrá-los previamente à análise por NIR-HI. Anéis foram produzidos a partir de amostras de gasolinas comum adicionadas dos aditivos (denominados G, T, W e Y) fornecidos pela Agência Nacional do Petróleo, Gás Natural e Biocombustíveis (ANP) e as imagens adquiridas utilizando uma câmera hiperespectral (SisuCHEMA). Três estratégias de extração dos espectros do anel foram testadas a fim de se escolher a mais rápida e objetiva. A estratégia escolhida se baseia nos histogramas dos escores da primeira componente principal das imagens analisadas individualmente. Modelos de calibração individuais para cada aditivo foram construídos empregando a regressão por mínimos quadrados parciais (PLS), por isso, fez-se necessária uma etapa prévia de classificação. O melhor resultado para classificação foi obtido empregando a análise discriminante linear (LDA) associada ao algoritmo genético (GA) para seleção de variáveis, o qual apresentou uma taxa de classificações corretas de 92,31 %. Observou-se que a maioria dos erros de classificação envolveram amostras dos aditivos G e W. Um único modelo de regressão para esses dois aditivos foi, então, construído e seu erro foi equivalente aos dos modelos individuais. Os modelos de regressão apresentaram erros médios de predição entre 2 e 15 %. Esses resultados mostram que a metodologia proposta pode ser utilizada para determinar as concentrações dos aditivos com confiabilidade e garantir que eles estão sendo adicionados conforme a lei. / The addition of detergent dispersant additives to Brazilian gasoline will be mandatory from July 2015. It is necessary, therefore, to develop a methodology that allows quantifying these additives to verify their compliance with the law. In this work, a method that associates the ring-oven technique with near infrared hyperspectral images (NIR-HI) is proposed. Because the additives are added in low concentrations, the ring-oven technique was employed to concentrate them prior to the NIR-HI analysis. Rings were produced from samples of gasolines without additives spiked with additives (called G, T, W and Y) provided by the National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels (ANP) and the images were acquired using a hyperspectral camera (SisuCHEMA). Three strategies for extraction of the ring spectra were tested in order to select the faster and most objective. The chosen strategy is based on the histograms of the first principal component scores of the images analyzed individually. Regression models were built for each additive using partial least squares (PLS) regression, so it was necessary to have a previous classification stage. The best classification result was obtained using the linear discriminant analysis (LDA) associated with the genetic algorithm (GA) for variable selection, which showed a correct classification rate of 92.31 %. It was observed that most of the misclassification errors involved the samples of the G and W additives. A single regression model was then built for these two additives and its error was equivalent to the errors of the individual models. The regression models showed average prediction errors between 2 and 15 %. These results show that the proposed methodology can be used to determine the additive concentrations with reliability and to ensure that they are been added according to the law.

Orientador: Jarbas Jose Rodrigues Rohwedder / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Quimica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-05T16:07:01Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Sousa_ElianeRodriguesde_D.pdf: 1575011 bytes, checksum: 32fcdf7815aa2854c92c4a91e1f22e17 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005 / Doutorado / Quimica Analitica / Doutor em Quimica

Orientador: Celio Pasquini / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Quimica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-06T01:49:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Scafi_SergioHenriqueFrasson_D.pdf: 5554539 bytes, checksum: 8a978ed59b85de32c8819f4be35c1b7b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2005 / Doutorado / Quimica Analitica / Doutor em Ciências

Neste trabalho foram desenvolvidos métodos analíticos para a determinação simultânea de As, Co e Se em petróleo, gasolina e óleo lubrificante por espectrometria de absorção atômica com atomização eletrotérmica. As estratégias de preparo das amostras foram baseadas em emulsão de gasolina e petróleo e digestão ácida assistida por microondas para o óleo lubrificante. Os programas de aquecimento foram otimizados pela obtenção de curvas de pirólise e atomização de soluções analíticas de referência, emulsões e digeridos das amostras, na presença e ausência do modificador químico Pd + Mg. As emulsões de gasolina foram preparadas em tubos de vidro (Pirex®) com adição de Triton X-100, ácido nítrico e água Milli-Q. Na preparação das emulsões de petróleo foi necessário realizar a diluição da amostra com hexano, seguida da adição de Triton X-100, ácido nítrico e água Milli-Q. As emulsões foram sonicadas por 2 min. As melhores condições para a preparação das emulsões foram encontradas avaliando-se as intensidades dos sinais de absorbância de cada elemento em função da variação da quantidade das amostras, surfactante, teor ácido e solvente. As amostras de óleo lubrificante foram digeridas com ácido nítrico e peróxido de hidrogênio e analisadas após a diluição com água Milli-Q. As curvas analíticas de calibração foram preparadas em 2% (v/v) de HNO3 + 6% (v/v) de Triton X-100, 1% (v/v) de HNO3 + 7% (v/v) de Triton X-100 + 5% (v/v) de hexano, 0,1 % (v/v) de HNO3, para gasolina, petróleo e óleo lubrificante, respectivamente. Os limites de detecção (n=10) foram 7,2 µg L-1 para As, 1,0 µg L-1 para Co e 5,0 µg L-1 para Se em gasolina; 7,0 µg L-1 para As, 1,3 µg L-1 para Co e 5,7 µg L-1 para Se em petróleo; e 3,9 µg L-1 para As, 1,0 µg L-1 para Co e 4,0 µg L-1 para Se para óleo lubrificante. As recuperações obtidas foram de 94 a 112% para adição de 20 µg L-1 de As, 92 a 117% para 10 µg L-1 de Co e 94 a 129% para 20 µg L-1 de Se adicionados nas amostras de gasolina (n=5), petróleo (n=4) e óleo lubrificante (n=4). / In this work analytical methods were developed for simultaneous determination of As, Co and Se in gasoline, petroleum and lubricating oil by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. Strategies for the sample preparation were based on the emulsion for gasoline and petroleum and acid digestion using microwave oven for lubricating oil. The heating program optimizations were carried out using pyrolysis and atomization temperatures of analytical reference solutions, emulsions and digestate of sample solutions, in presence and absence of Pd + Mg as chemical modifiers. The gasoline emulsions were prepared in Pyrex® lass tubes by adding Triton X-100, nitric acid and Milli-Q water. For the petroleum emulsion preparation it was necessary the previous dissolution of sample with hexane, as well as Triton X-100, nitric acid and Milli-Q water addition. All emulsions were submitted to sonication for 2 minutes. The optimization of emulsifications were done by the evaluation of absorbance signals versus the variations of sample quantity, surfactant, nitric acid and solvent concentration. Lubricating oil samples were digested using a mixture of nitric acid and hydrogen peroxide and analyzed after dilution with Milli-Q water. The calibration curves were prepared in 2% (v/v) HNO3 + 6% (v/v) Triton X-100, 1% (v/v) HNO3 + 7% (v/v) Triton X-100 + 5% (v/v) hexane, 0,1 % (v/v) de HNO3, for gasoline, petroleum and lubricating oil, respectively. The estimated detection limits (n=10) were 7.2 µg L-1 for As, 1.0 µg L-1 for Co, and 5.0 µg L-1 for Se in gasoline; 7.0 µg L-1 for As, 1.3 µg L-1 for Co, and 5.7 µg L-1 for Se in petroleum; and 3.9 µg L-1 for As, 1.0 µg L-1 for Co, and 4.0 µg L-1 for Se in lubricating oil. Five gasoline, four petroleum and four lubricating oil samples were analyzed and spiked with As (20 µg L-1), Co (10 µg L-1) and Se (20 µg L-1). The obtained recoveries were 94 to 112% for As, 92 to 117% for Co and 94 to 129% for Se in gasoline, petroleum and lubricating oil, respectively.

A maioria dos agentes terapêuticos, frequentemente prescritos são formulados e comercializados sob a forma racêmica, embora para alguns deles, já tenha sido demonstrado que os efeitos farmacológicos e ou tóxicos estejam relacionados apenas a um dos enantiômeros. Além disso, é conhecido o fato de que os enantiômeros podem apresentar perfis farmacocinéticos e farmacodinâmicos diferentes. O estudo avaliou a influência da exposição inalatória ao vapor de gasolina e ao etanol combustível na farmacocinética enantiosseletiva dos fármacos verapamil, ibuprofeno e fluoxetina. Ratos machos Wistar foram divididos em 09 grupos: controle, gasolina, etanol combustível. A exposição aos solventes foi realizada em câmara de exposição do tipo apenas pelo nariz, durante 6 horas/dia, cinco dias por semana, durante 6 semanas. A análise das AUCs foram calculadas diretamente no intervalo de zero a infinito com base na Quadratura de Gauss- Laguerre. As concentrações correspondentes aos tempos foram estimadas por interpolação polinomial. A comparação dos valores de AUC e Cl/f obtidos para cada fármaco e para cada Grupo exposto e seu respectivo Controle, foi realizada através da construção de Intervalos de Confiança, ao nível de 95%. A farmacocinética do verapamil, do ibuprofeno e da fluoxetina é enantiosseletiva. Os dados mostram que a exposição inalatória de ratos ao etanol combustível na concentração de 2 LEOSTEL mostrou indução do CYP2C através da redução do AUC e do aumento do clearance aparente do enantiômero (+)-(S)-ibuprofeno, inibição do CYP2D indicada pelo aumento da AUC e redução do clearance aparente do enantiômero (-)-(R)- fluoxetina e indução do CYP3A evidenciada por redução dos valores de AUC e aumento dos valores de clearance aparente de ambos os enantiômeros do verapamil. A exposição inalatória de ratos à gasolina na concentração de 2-LEOTWA também mostrou indução do CYP2C denotada pela redução do AUC e do aumento do clearance aparente de ambos os enantiômeros do ibuprofeno, inibição do CYP2D indicada pelo aumento dos valores de AUC e redução dos valores de clearance aparente de ambos enantiômeros da fluoxetina e, em não alteração do CYP3A evidenciada pela obtenção de valores de AUC e clearance aparente do verapamil similares aos do grupo controle. / Most therapeutic agents frequently used are formulated and sold under the racemic form, although for some of them, it has been demonstrated that the pharmacological or toxic and are associated only with one of the enantiomers. The study evaluated the influence of inhalation exposure to vapor of gasoline and ethanol in the enantioselective pharmacokinetics of the drug verapamil, ibuprofen and fluoxetine. Male Wistar rats were divided into 09 groups: control, gasoline, ethanol. The exposure was carried out in solvent exposure chamber by nose only exposure system for 6 hours / day, five days per week for six weeks. The analysis of the AUC were calculated directly in the range of zero to infinity on the basis of Quadrature Gauss-Laguerre. The concentrations corresponding to the times were estimated by polynomial interpolation. The comparison of AUC and Cl/f obtained for each drug and for each exposed group and its respective control, was accomplished through the construction of confidence intervals, at 95%. In conclusion, the pharmacokinetics of verapamil, ibuprofen and fluoxetine is enantioselective. The data show that inhalation exposure of rats to ethanol at a concentration of 2-LEO STEL showed induction CYP2C by reducing of the AUC and increase the apparent clearance of the enantiomer (+)-(S)-ibuprofen, inhibition of CYP2D indicated AUC increase and the reduction in the apparent clearance of the enantiomer (-)-(R)-fluoxetine and CYP3A induction as evidenced by reduction in AUC and increase and the values of apparent clearance of both enantiomers of verapamil. Inhalation exposure of rats to gasoline in a concentration of 2-LEO-TWA also showed induction CYP2C denoted by the reduction of AUC and increase and the apparent clearance of both enantiomers of ibuprofen, inhibition of CYP2D indicated by the increase in AUC and reduction values of apparent clearance of both enantiomers of fluoxetine and does not change the CYP3A evidenced by obtaining AUC and apparent clearance of verapamil similar to the control group.

A utilização de combustíveis alternativos em MCI, visa a substituição ou a redução do consumo de combustíveis fósseis. Qualquer estudo do desenvolvimento de métodos e técnicas que melhore o desempenho dos motores usando combustíveis alternativos é de grande importância tecnológica, econômica e social. Com este fim, foi feito este trabalho de pesquisa, o qual consiste em ensaiar um motor usando misturas de 37% e 50% de etanol na gasolina. O etanol utilizado neste trabalho apresentou um grau alcoólico de 92 INPM aproximadamente. Os ensaios foram feitos em taxas de compressão 8:1, 9.5:1 e 11:1. Foi avaliada a influência dos diferentes parâmetros para um máximo de eficiência e um mínimo de poluição, aproveitando as vantagens de ambos combustíveis, já que, a gasolina tem alto poder calorífico e baixo índice octano, e o etanol tem baixo poder calorífico e elevado índice de octana. O combustível ideal deveria ter ambos os fatores elevados. Para verificar os resultados esperados, foram feitos neste trabalho, estudos cinéticos químicos da combustão a partir do desempenho do motor e geração de gases. Para cumprir este fim foram necessários estudos que incluem o diagnóstico do processo de combustão, já que, o diagnóstico do processo de combustão fornece toda a informação necessária, às análises de aspectos críticos do funcionamento do motor e de emissões. Comprovou-se que a velocidade da reação de oxidação do etanol é maior que da gasolina e que, o motor aproveita mais a energia química do etanol que da gasolina. / The use of alternative fuels in Internal Combustion engine, seeks the substitution or the reduction of the consumption of fossil fuels. Any study of the development of methods and techniques that it improves the acting of the motors using alternative fuels are of great technological, economic and social importance. With this goal, it was made this research work, which consists of tests in an engine using blends of 37% and 50% of ethanol in the gasoline. The ethanol used in this work presented an alcoholic degree of 92 INPM approximately. The tests were made in compression ratio 8:1, 9.5:1 and 11:1. The influence of the different parameters was evaluated for a maximum of efficiency and a minimum of pollution, taking advantage of the advantages of both fuels, since, the gasoline has high PCI and low octane index, and the ethanol low PCI and high octane index. The ideal fuel should have high both factors. To verify the expected results, they were done in this work, studies kinetic chemists of the combustion starting from engine performance and generation of gases. To execute this goal they were necessary studies that include the diagnostics of the combustion process, since, the diagnostics of the combustion process supplies all the necessary information, to the analyses of engine critical aspects operation and emissions. Was proven that the speed of the ethanol reaction of oxidation is larger than gasoline and that the engine takes advantage of more the ethanol chemical energy that of the gasoline.

We empirically investigate the importance of centrality (holding a central position in a spatial network) for strategic interaction in pricing for the Austrian retail gasoline market. Results from spatial autoregressive models suggest that the gasoline station located most closely to the market center - defined as the 1-median location - exerts the strongest effect on pricing decisions of other stations. We conclude that centrality influences firms' pricing behavior and further find that the importance of centrality increases with market size.

Anthropogenic gas- and particle-phase emissions affect the climate by absorbing and scattering radiation, and have been linked to adverse health effects. Black carbon (BC), a by-product of incomplete combustion, is the most potent light-absorbing component of atmospheric aerosols, with a top-of-the atmosphere direct radiative forcing estimated to be only second to CO2. However, there is a large uncertainty associated with BC’s total direct and indirect radiative forcings due to uncertain source emissions and optical properties and complex interactions with clouds. In this dissertation we investigate the direct radiative impact of two of the most important sources of BC particles: biofuel combustion and vehicles. Together these sources contribute around 40% of the global atmospheric BC burden. Recently, both of these energy sources are undergoing rapid technology changes, and the climate impacts from the emissions of these newly adopted technologies remain uncertain. We also investigate the role of atmospheric processing on the optical properties and growth rates of particles. This dissertation first assesses the climate impacts of aerosol emissions of two rapidly emerging technologies: improved cookstoves and gasoline direct injection (GDI) vehicles. We performed extensive measurements of gas- and particle emissions and optical properties of emissions from both these sources. Our data suggests that improved rocket cookstoves have, on average, a factor of two lower particulate matter (PM) emissions compared to traditional cookstoves but only a 4% climate benefits associated with their emissions. In contrast, we estimated a 30% climate benefit from switching traditional cookstoves to gasifier ones. Of all the stoves tested, charcoal stoves had the lowest emissions and climate impacts. Our data suggests the widespread deployment of improved cookstoves to replace existing, inefficient, traditional cookstoves will likely result in health and climate co-benefits. Similarly, we estimated that the rapid adoption of GDI vehicles to replace existing port fuel injection (PFI) vehicles will likely result in reduced warming from emissions. This is due to the higher fuel economy of GDI engines; we measured an average CO2 reduction of 57 g/mi, from switching engine technologies. GDI engine emissions had higher PM emissions compared to PFI engines, similar to previous findings. In addition, our data suggests that newer GDI engines have a factor of two lower PM emissions compared to older GDI engines. These improvements in emissions may enable GDI-equipped vehicles to meet the new Federal Tier 3 PM standard of 3.0 mg/mi without gasoline particulate filters (GPF, which would reduce their fuel economy). To better constrain the large uncertainty of radiative forcing associated with cookstove emissions, this dissertation examines emissions and optical properties from several cookstove and fuel combinations. We performed extensive laboratory measurements of the optical properties of fresh cookstove emissions using the newly developed firepower sweep protocol. Current model treatments of the optical properties of cookstove emissions assume: (1) complete internal mixture between BC and non-BC material and (2) absorption properties of organics based on parametrizations developed for biomass burning emissions. These assumptions do not accurately represent optical properties of fresh cookstove emissions. We developed new parametrizations of optical properties (BC-mass absorption cross section (MACBC), absorption angstrom exponent (AAE), and single scattering albedo (SSA)) of aerosol emissions from cookstoves as a function of the BC-to-PM mass ratio. These parametrizations are designed for use in climate models to more rigorously assess the global climate implications from adoption of improved stove technologies. Upon entering the atmosphere aerosol emissions undergo complex chemical transformations. Aerosol optical properties depend on their atmospheric processing which controls the amount of coating the particles accumulate and their lifetime. To assess the effects of coating on the optical properties, we performed targeted experiments using real world, size selected, BC particles emitted from a rocket improved cookstove, and coated with biogenic secondary organic aerosol (SOA) material. These experiments explicitly target to evaluate measurements and modeling using simple formulation like Mie theory. Measurements of MACBC and the mass scattering cross section (MSC) of coated BC particles were in good agreement with Mie predictions when the organic-to-BC mass ratio>5. Scattering (but not absorption) was sensitive to BC fractal-like morphology; Mie theory under-predicted measured scattering of fresh emissions. Our data suggest that Mie theory can be used in climate models to approximate the optical properties of coated BC particles emitted from cookstoves, if the mixing-state of BC particles is known. In this dissertation, we present initial evidence that particle growth rates depend on seed composition and gas-phase supersaturation. Current models do not account for seed-dependent growth rates. We conducted experiments to investigate the growth of diesel and biogenic SOA particles. Both seeds were exposed to the same gas-phase supersaturation, which allows us to accurately retrieve differences in growth rates and decouple the effects of surface activity and accommodation coefficients. We estimated that the accommodation coefficients of condensing material was 10% to 30% lower on the diesel particles compared to the SOA particles. Moreover, we measured larger surface activity of condensing material on the diesel particles, potentially due to less-miscible condensing vapors in the diesel particles compared to the SOA particles. Our data suggest that growth of BC (diesel) particles in the atmosphere is likely slower compared to SOA particles. Accurately representing these processes is important to estimate the lifetime and absorption enhancement from coated BC particles, as they compete with other particles for condensable vapors.