Canada’s Patented Medicines (Notice Of Compliance) Regulations fail to achieve the intended purpose of balancing innovation with timely generic market entry. An examination of the inefficiencies created by the Canadian regulations reveals that key features of U.S. pharmaceutical law should be adopted to improve the disjointed regulatory system that impedes generic competition. Specifically, the regulations should be amended to consolidate multiple proceedings into one cause of action that evaluates patent validity. An economic incentive to challenge weak patents should also be introduced in Canada. These features encourage competition without deterring pharmaceutical research and development because only patents that are not truly inventive will be invalidated after a full inquiry. As such, the intellectual property laws will continue to satisfy Canada’s international intellectual property obligations and protect innovative medicines and allow recovery of costs and monopoly profits to new and useful pharmaceutical products.

Canada’s Patented Medicines (Notice Of Compliance) Regulations fail to achieve the intended purpose of balancing innovation with timely generic market entry. An examination of the inefficiencies created by the Canadian regulations reveals that key features of U.S. pharmaceutical law should be adopted to improve the disjointed regulatory system that impedes generic competition. Specifically, the regulations should be amended to consolidate multiple proceedings into one cause of action that evaluates patent validity. An economic incentive to challenge weak patents should also be introduced in Canada. These features encourage competition without deterring pharmaceutical research and development because only patents that are not truly inventive will be invalidated after a full inquiry. As such, the intellectual property laws will continue to satisfy Canada’s international intellectual property obligations and protect innovative medicines and allow recovery of costs and monopoly profits to new and useful pharmaceutical products.

In May 2021 the Swedish government decided to establish a trial period for an environmental bonus within the swedish reimbursement system, with the purpose to reduce the emissions of antibiotics and carbon dioxide from the pharmaceutical industry. This thesis examines the effect of the bonus on the pharmaceutical market and whether the goal set by the government can be met based on economic theory. By an in-depth analysis of the generic market, the implementation of the environmental premium is examined on the basis of the Bertrand model. The thesis finds that the environmental bonus will give different outcomes depending on the number of competing firms on the market. The main conclusion is that an environmental bonus will, in most cases, lead to higher prices for medicines. The thesis also finds that the bonus would probably give the best results in the substitution groups where many firms compete. / I maj 2021 beslutade regeringen att ett försök till miljöpremie ska implementeras i läkemedelsförmånssystemet. Syftet med miljöpremien är att minska utsläppen av främst restprodukter till antibiotika men även utsläppen av koldioxid vid produktionen. Denna uppsats undersöker vilka effekter denna miljöpremie kan tänkas ge på läkemedelsmarknaden utifrån nationalekonomisk teori samt om det mål som regeringen satt upp kan tänkas uppfyllas. Genom att djupgående analysera generikamarknaden undersöks implementeringen av miljöpremien utifrån Bertrandmodellen. Uppsatsen finner att miljöpremien troligtvis kommer ge olika utfall inom marknaden beroende på antal konkurrerande företag per utbytesgrupp. Analysens huvudsakliga slutsats är att en miljöpremien i de flesta fall kommer leda till högre priser på läkemedel samt att möjligheten för företag att upprätthålla tysta prissamordningar kan tänkas minska. Slutligen finner uppsatsen att en miljöpremie troligtvis får flest läkemedelsföretag att ställa om till grönt när den implementeras i utbytesgrupper med flera konkurrenter.

No Brasil, os medicamentos genéricos e similares devem ser submetidos a ensaios de biodisponibilidade relativa/ bioequivalência para comprovação de sua intercambiabilidade com o medicamento referência. Nestes ensaios, o medicamento genérico, ou similar, é comparado com o medicamento referência em um estudo cruzado, mas não é comparado com outros genéricos ou similares do mercado. Desta forma, podemos afirmar que todo medicamento genérico ou similar é intercambiável com o medicamento de referência, mas não temos informações sobre a intercambiabilidade de um genérico com outro genérico ou com um similar. Entretanto, é comum que os pacientes substituam não apenas medicamento de referência pelo genérico ou similar correspondente, mas também um genérico por outro genérico, ou um genérico por um similar. Assim sendo, a questão que se coloca é se essas substituições entre genéricos e entre genérico e similar, podem gerar problemas de eficácia e/ou segurança para os pacientes. Para tentar responder essa questão foi proposta uma análise estatística, a meta-análise, onde seria possível avaliar a biodisponibilidade relativa/ bioequivalência entre genéricos, entre similares ou genérico e similar a partir dos resultados dos ensaios em que estes medicamentos foram comparados ao referência. Assim, o objetivo do estudo proposto foi aplicar técnicas estatísticas de meta-análise na avaliação da intercambiabilidade entre diferentes medicamentos similares de um mesmo medicamento referência. Amoxicilina foi escolhida como fármaco modelo para este estudo. Foram realizados três estudos de bioidisponibilidade relativa do tipo quantitativo direto, com delineamento aleatório, cruzado e aberto para comparar os produtos (T1, T2, T3) a três diferentes lotes do produto de referência (R1, R2, R3). Os resultados destes ensaios revelaram que os três produtos foram bioequivalentes e intercambiáveis ao produto de referência. A meta-análise foi então aplicada para avaliar a intercambiabilidade entre os produtos T1 (amoxicilina IQUEGO), T2 (Hiconcil ®) e T3 (amoxicilina FUNED) utilizando os parâmetros farmacocinéticos Cmax e ASC0-t obtidos dos estudos clínicos 1, 2 e 3, independentes. Os resultados obtidos na meta-análise demonstraram que os produtos testes T1, T2 e T3 apresentam valores de extensão de absorção semelhantes, pois, na comparação entre a ASC0-t dos três produtos observa-se que os intervalos de confiança 90% encontram-se dentro dos limites de 80 - 125% para todas as comparações (T1xT2, T2xT3 e T1xT3). Porém, na avaliação do parâmetro farmacocinético Cmax, observou-se diferença de velocidade de absorção na comparação entre os produtos T2 e T3, com intervalo de confiança 90% fora dos limites estabelecidos e, conseqüentemente, rejeição da possibilidade de intercambiabilidade entre estes dois produtos. Conclui-se que a meta-análise de ensaios de biodisponibilidade relativa/ bioequivalência é uma ferramenta valiosa no aperfeiçoamento da política de medicamentos no Brasil. / In Brazil, generic and similar pharmaceutical products must be submitted to bioequivalence assays for evidence of interchangeability with the reference product. In these assays, the generic, or similar product, is compared to the reference one, but it is not compared to other generic or similar product in the market. In such a way, we can affirm that every generic or similar product is interchangeable with the reference product, but we don´t have any information on the interchangeability between generic and similar products. Usually, patients will not only substitute reference products for the generic or similar correspondent, but also a generic for another generic, or a generic for a similar. Thus, the question for discussion is if substitutions between generics or between generic and similar can guarantee effectiveness and security to patients. In order to try to answer this question a meta-analysis procedure was proposed to evaluate the relative bioavailability between generics, similars or generic and similar products from the results of the assays where these medicines had been compared with the reference product. The objective of this study was to apply the meta-analysis procedure to the results of three bioequivalence studies to evaluate the interchangeability between different similar products of the same reference product. Amoxicillin was chosen as the model drug for this study. Three bioequivalence assays, with a quantitative, randon, crossover and open design were conducted to compare three tests products (T1, T2, T3) to three lots of the reference products (R1, R2, R3). Results from these assays showed that all three test products were bioequivalent and interchangeable to the reference product. Meta-analysis was then applied to evaluate the interchangeability between products T1 (amoxicilina IQUEGO), T2 (Hiconcil®) and T3 (amoxicilina FUNED) using pharmacokinetic parameter Cmax, and AUC0-t, from the independent assays. Results demonstrated that test products T1, T2 and T3 present similar values of extension of absorption and 90% confidence intervals for AUC0-t were included in the 80 - 125% limits for all comparison (T1xT2, T2xT3 and T1xT3). However, for the pharmacokinetic parameter Cmax, a difference between products T2 and T3, with 90% confidence intervals outside the established limits and rejection of the possibility of interchangeability between these two products. It was concluded that meta-analysis procedures of bioequivalence assays is a valuable tool to improve brazilian health policy.

No Brasil, os medicamentos genéricos e similares devem ser submetidos a ensaios de biodisponibilidade relativa/ bioequivalência para comprovação de sua intercambiabilidade com o medicamento referência. Nestes ensaios, o medicamento genérico, ou similar, é comparado com o medicamento referência em um estudo cruzado, mas não é comparado com outros genéricos ou similares do mercado. Desta forma, podemos afirmar que todo medicamento genérico ou similar é intercambiável com o medicamento de referência, mas não temos informações sobre a intercambiabilidade de um genérico com outro genérico ou com um similar. Entretanto, é comum que os pacientes substituam não apenas medicamento de referência pelo genérico ou similar correspondente, mas também um genérico por outro genérico, ou um genérico por um similar. Assim sendo, a questão que se coloca é se essas substituições entre genéricos e entre genérico e similar, podem gerar problemas de eficácia e/ou segurança para os pacientes. Para tentar responder essa questão foi proposta uma análise estatística, a meta-análise, onde seria possível avaliar a biodisponibilidade relativa/ bioequivalência entre genéricos, entre similares ou genérico e similar a partir dos resultados dos ensaios em que estes medicamentos foram comparados ao referência. Assim, o objetivo do estudo proposto foi aplicar técnicas estatísticas de meta-análise na avaliação da intercambiabilidade entre diferentes medicamentos similares de um mesmo medicamento referência. Amoxicilina foi escolhida como fármaco modelo para este estudo. Foram realizados três estudos de bioidisponibilidade relativa do tipo quantitativo direto, com delineamento aleatório, cruzado e aberto para comparar os produtos (T1, T2, T3) a três diferentes lotes do produto de referência (R1, R2, R3). Os resultados destes ensaios revelaram que os três produtos foram bioequivalentes e intercambiáveis ao produto de referência. A meta-análise foi então aplicada para avaliar a intercambiabilidade entre os produtos T1 (amoxicilina IQUEGO), T2 (Hiconcil ®) e T3 (amoxicilina FUNED) utilizando os parâmetros farmacocinéticos Cmax e ASC0-t obtidos dos estudos clínicos 1, 2 e 3, independentes. Os resultados obtidos na meta-análise demonstraram que os produtos testes T1, T2 e T3 apresentam valores de extensão de absorção semelhantes, pois, na comparação entre a ASC0-t dos três produtos observa-se que os intervalos de confiança 90% encontram-se dentro dos limites de 80 - 125% para todas as comparações (T1xT2, T2xT3 e T1xT3). Porém, na avaliação do parâmetro farmacocinético Cmax, observou-se diferença de velocidade de absorção na comparação entre os produtos T2 e T3, com intervalo de confiança 90% fora dos limites estabelecidos e, conseqüentemente, rejeição da possibilidade de intercambiabilidade entre estes dois produtos. Conclui-se que a meta-análise de ensaios de biodisponibilidade relativa/ bioequivalência é uma ferramenta valiosa no aperfeiçoamento da política de medicamentos no Brasil. / In Brazil, generic and similar pharmaceutical products must be submitted to bioequivalence assays for evidence of interchangeability with the reference product. In these assays, the generic, or similar product, is compared to the reference one, but it is not compared to other generic or similar product in the market. In such a way, we can affirm that every generic or similar product is interchangeable with the reference product, but we don´t have any information on the interchangeability between generic and similar products. Usually, patients will not only substitute reference products for the generic or similar correspondent, but also a generic for another generic, or a generic for a similar. Thus, the question for discussion is if substitutions between generics or between generic and similar can guarantee effectiveness and security to patients. In order to try to answer this question a meta-analysis procedure was proposed to evaluate the relative bioavailability between generics, similars or generic and similar products from the results of the assays where these medicines had been compared with the reference product. The objective of this study was to apply the meta-analysis procedure to the results of three bioequivalence studies to evaluate the interchangeability between different similar products of the same reference product. Amoxicillin was chosen as the model drug for this study. Three bioequivalence assays, with a quantitative, randon, crossover and open design were conducted to compare three tests products (T1, T2, T3) to three lots of the reference products (R1, R2, R3). Results from these assays showed that all three test products were bioequivalent and interchangeable to the reference product. Meta-analysis was then applied to evaluate the interchangeability between products T1 (amoxicilina IQUEGO), T2 (Hiconcil®) and T3 (amoxicilina FUNED) using pharmacokinetic parameter Cmax, and AUC0-t, from the independent assays. Results demonstrated that test products T1, T2 and T3 present similar values of extension of absorption and 90% confidence intervals for AUC0-t were included in the 80 - 125% limits for all comparison (T1xT2, T2xT3 and T1xT3). However, for the pharmacokinetic parameter Cmax, a difference between products T2 and T3, with 90% confidence intervals outside the established limits and rejection of the possibility of interchangeability between these two products. It was concluded that meta-analysis procedures of bioequivalence assays is a valuable tool to improve brazilian health policy.

1 Thesis Summary Private Enforcement of EU Competition Law Zuzana Šimeková 1. Starting points and goals of the thesis The main goal of my thesis is the application of the ever-evolving contemporary issues of private enforcement of the EU competition law, its developments in the legislative area and the decision- making practice of the European Commission and the Court of Justice of the European Union (the ECJ) to the pharmaceutical sector area. As regards the functioning of competition rules, the pharmaceutical sector found itself in the cross-hairs of the European Commission fairly recently. Its efforts resulted in the Pharmaceutical Sector Inquiry Final Report of 8 July 2009 (the Final Report). The primary subject-matter of my thesis is the assessment of the competition relationship dynamic between the originator and generic pharmaceutical companies, especially the degree by which the conduct by the originator pharmaceutical companies can delay market entry by the generic pharmaceutical companies and thereby negatively affect the consumers by (among other things) limiting availability of cheaper drugs. Despite the expectations of legal practitioners and academia, the European Commission did not rule in the Final Report whether the discovered conducts constitute violations of the EU competition law. The...

The aim of the diploma thesis is to describe and analyse information sources, which are useful for the molecules portfolio selection suitable for the future development of a generic drug. These information sources should be examined on the case study of the portfolio selection in a given therapeutic area. The topic of the diploma thesis is presented in the context of basic principles and functions of the generic farmaceutical industry and its information needs. The introductory chapter characterizes the farmaceutical industry in general and warn on a competitive environment, which the farmaceutical companies can succeed in thanks to the advanced methods of the business intelligence. The second chapter focuses on the differences betwen the generic and original pharmaceutical industry, a drug lifecycle is also introduced there. The next chapter specifies the methods of the business intelligence in the generic pharmaceutical industry on the ground of its information needs. The fourth chapter plays a key role. First of all, it introduces general characteristics of information sources used in the strategic portfolio management. Secondly, the detailed description and analysis of eight main information sources used by the generic companies within business intelligence follows. In the last chapter these...