China is the second largest emitter of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the world. Since 68% of its primary energy is from coal, China’s average energy intensity is 7.5 times higher than the EU and 4.3 times higher than the US (EU, 2003). Therefore, introducing advanced clean technologies and management to China represents opportunities for Annex I countries to obtain low-cost CERs through CDM projects, and access to one of the largest energy conservation markets in the world. The Chinese government considers that the introduction of CDM projects can bring advanced energy technologies and foreign investment to China, thereby helping China’s sustainable development. As energy efficiency is generally low and carbon intensity is high in both China’s energy supply and demand sectors, numerous options exist for cost-effective energy conservation and GHG mitigation with CDM. This study has focused on the following areas:  Clean development Mechanism (CDM) Policy and Implementation in ChinaClean development Mechanism (CDM) Policy and Implementation in ChinaChina’s energy development strategy and climate change, how to make CDM work for sustainable development in China?  CDM projects in China: policies assessment and recommendations for improvement.  Energy efficiency CDM projects and renewable CDM projects in China: case studies Firstly, this thesis reviewed the current CDM developments in China, attentions were given to the renewable energy, energy efficiency and methane capture project opportunities in China. Secondly, this study introduced China’s current policy on CDM implementation, and reviewed its permission requirements, institutional arrangements and project procedures. Based on the observations, this study analyzed the current problems and pointed out the shortfalls of the existing Chinese CDM policies and institutional settings. Options to remove these barriers were given as recommendations. This thesis also looked at the problem of that CDM was designed to have double dividends, to reduce the compliance cost of the Annex I countries and to contribute to sustainable development in Non Annex I Parties, but in reality, CDM has caused concerns about whether it could really support sustainable development in host countries. This study analyzed the reasons underpin this problem. Thirdly, based on the analysis made on energy efficiency and renewable CDM project development in China, case study was given on China’s landfill gas to energy project. This study analyzed the perspective of GHG mitigation through landfill gas capture and utilization in China, its opportunities and challenges. Moreover, this study demonstrated how CDM can add value to landfill gas-to-energy projects in China.

This thesis deals with some challenges related to the mitigation of climate change and the overall aim is to present and assess different possibilities for the mitigation of climate change by: • Suggesting some measures with a potential to abate net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, • Discussing ideas for how decision-makers could tackle some of the encountered obstacles linked to these measures, and • Pointing at some problems with the current Kyoto framework and suggesting modifications of it. The quantification of the net CO2 effect from a specific project, frequently referred to as emissions accounting, is an important tool to evaluate projects and strategies for mitigating climate change. This thesis discusses different emissions accounting methods. It is concluded that no single method ought to be used for generalisation purposes, as many factors may affect the real outcome for different projects. The estimated outcome is extremely dependent on the method chosen and, thus, the suggested approach is to apply a broader perspective than the use of a particular method for strategic decisions. The risk of losing the integrity of the Kyoto Protocol when over-simplified emissions accounting methods are applied for the quantification of emission credits that can be obtained by a country with binding emissions targets for projects executed in a country without binding emission targets is also discussed. Driving forces and obstacles with regard to energy-related co-operations between industries and district heating companies have been studied since they may potentially reduce net GHG emissions. The main conclusion is that favourable techno-economic circumstances are not sufficient for the implementation of a co-operation; other factors like people with the true ambition to co-operate are also necessary. How oxy-fuel combustion for CO2 capture and storage (CCS) purposes may be much more efficiently utilised together with some industrial processes than with power production processes is also discussed. As cost efficiency is relevant for the Kyoto framework, this thesis suggests that CCS performed on CO2 from biomass should be allowed to play on a level playing field with CCS from fossil sources, as the outcome for the atmosphere is independent of the origin of the CO2. / QC 20101015

This thesis takes EV from the late 90’s as a baseline, assess the capability of today’s EV technology, and establishes its near-term and long-term prospects. Simulations are performed to evaluate EVs with different combinations of new electric machines and battery chemistries. Cost assessment is also presented to address the major challenge of EV commercialization. This assessment is based on two popular vehicle classes: subcompact and mid-size. Fuel, electricity and battery costs are taken into consideration for this study. Despite remaining challenges and concerns, this study shows that with production level increases and battery price-drops, full function EVs could dominate the market in the longer term. The modeling shows that from a technical and performance standpoint both range and recharge times already fall into a window of practicality, with few if any compromises relative to conventional vehicles. Electric vehicles are the most sustainable alternative personal transportation technology available to-date. With continuing breakthroughs, minimal change to the power grid, and optimal GHG reductions, emerging electric vehicle performance is unexpectedly high.

Suburban growth in the U.S. urban regions has been defined by large subdivisions of single-family detached units. This growth is made possible by the mobility supported by automobiles and an extensive highway network. These dispersed and highly automobile-dependent developments have generated a large body of work examining the socioeconomic and environmental impacts of suburban growth on cities. The particular debate that this study addresses is whether suburban residents are more energy intensive in their travel behavior than central city residents. If indeed suburban residents have needs that are not satisfied by the amenities around them, they may be traveling farther to access such services. However, if suburbs are becoming like cities with a wide range of services and amenities, travel might be contained and no different from the travel behavior of residents in central areas. This paper will compare the effects of long term suburban growth on travel behavior, energy consumption, and GHG emissions through a case study of neighborhoods in central Phoenix and the city of Gilbert, both in the Phoenix metropolitan region. Motorized travel patterns in these study areas will be generated using 2001 and 2009 National Household Travel Survey (NHTS) data by developing a four-step transportation demand model in TransCAD. Energy consumption and GHG emissions, including both Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) and Nitrous Oxide (N₂O) for each study area will be estimated based on the corresponding trip distribution results. The final normalized outcomes will not only be compared spatially between Phoenix and Gilbert within the same year, but also temporally between years 2001 and 2009 to determine how the differential land use changes in those places influenced travel. The results from this study reveal that suburban growth does have an impact on people's travel behaviors. As suburbs grew and diversified, the difference in travel behavior between people living in suburban and urban areas became smaller. In the case of shopping trips the average length of trips for suburban residents in 2009 was slightly shorter than that for central city residents. This convergence was substantially due to the faster growth in trip lengths for central city compared to suburban residents in the 8-year period. However, suburban residents continue to be more energy intensive in their travel behavior, as the effect of reduction in trip length is likely to be offset by the more intensive growth in trip frequency. Additionally, overall energy consumption has grown significantly in both study areas over the period of study.

With the increasing stringency on sulfur content in petrodiesel, there is a growing tendency of broader usage of ultra low sulfur diesel (ULSD) with sulfur content of 15 ppm. Refineries around the world should develop cost-effective and sustainable strategies to meet these requirements. The primary objective of this work is to analyze alternatives for producing ULSD. In addition to the conventional approach of revamping existing hydrotreating facilities, the option of blending petrodiesel with biodiesel is investigated. Blending petrodiesel with biodiesel is a potentially attractive option because it is naturally low in sulfur, enhances the lubricity of petrodiesel, and is a sustainable energy resource. In order to investigate alternatives for producing ULSD, several research tasks were undertaken in this work. Firstly, base-case designs of petrodiesel and biodiesel production processes were developed using computer-aided tools ASPEN Plus. The simulations were adjusted until the technical criteria and specifications of petrodiesel and biodiesel production were met. Next, process integration techniques were employed to optimize the synthesized processes. Heat integration for petrodiesel and biodiesel was carried out using algebraic, graphical and optimization methods to maximize the integrated heat exchange and minimize the heating and cooling utilities. Additionally, mass integration was applied to conserve material resources. Cost estimation was carried out for both processes. The capital investments were obtained from ASPEN ICARUS Process Evaluator, while operating costs were calculated based on the updated chemical market prices. The total operating costs before and after process integration were calculated and compared. Next, blending optimization was performed for three blending options with the optimum blend for each option identified. Economic comparison (total annualized cost, breakeven analysis, return on investment, and payback period) of the three options indicated that the blending of ULSD with chemical additives was the most profitable. However, the subsequent life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emission and safety comparisons demonstrated that the blending of ULSD with biodiesel was superior.

Plants (macrophytes) growing in lake and wetland sediments are known mediators of greenhouse gases (GHG), specifically methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O). Current studies have emphasized the potential risk of underestimation regarding emissions of plant-mediated GHGs from terrestrial systems including lakes, streams and other freshwater bodies. In order to differentiate the possible sources and sinks of atmospheric carbon and nitrogen in aquatic environments, this study aims to investigate the spatial variability of GHG fluxes in stands of common wetland macrophytes. Field samplings were carried out in the summer of 2012 where 24-hour diel measurements were conducted with the static chamber method in a boreal lake in south western Sweden. Two macrophyte communities were studied; one mixed-species stand and one species-specific stand of water horsetail (Equisetum fluviatile). Spatial variability was confirmed at several stages, both between and within stands. The species-specific stand emitted more CH4 than the mixed stand, from 0.17 to 8.99 mmol m-2 h-1, compared to 0.63 – 1.95 mmol m-2 h-1 maximum measured. Within stand variability was confirmed as variable CH4 flux per strand of E. fluviatile was established. No significant differences were observed regarding CO2 and N2O, other than weak correlation in diel patterns, e.g. daytime uptake and night time respiration/emission for both gases.

This thesis examines the response of air pollutant emissions, water use and carbon emissions from electric power supply systems (electrical grids) to market forces and natural and human disruptions. Specifically, the response of electrical grid operation decisions to emissions pricing and other factors, such as drought restrictions, is examined. The grid of the Electricity Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) is used as a source of data, and as a spatial and temporal test-bed. Price signals for NOx emissions have the potential to reduce NOx emissions from the ERCOT grid by up to 50%. In addition to lowering NOx, there are co-benefits to introducing NOx prices, including reductions in the emissions of SOx (24.9% to 70.9%), Hg (16.8% to 81.3%) and CO2 (8.7% to 21.1%). Water consumption was also decreased by 4.3% to 8.2%. The costs of redispatching electricity generation to reduce NOx emissions are, in many scenarios, comparable to conventional control costs. Higher CO2 prices produce many of the same changes in electricity generation as increases in NOx prices, but the simultaneous application of NOx and CO2 pricing produces complex effects. Under stress, such as drought induced water scarcity, dispatching decisions have the potential to increase water availability in regions in which drought is a concern. This dispatching had relatively small impacts on total water consumption summed over all regions of the ERCOT grid. However, the dispatching scenarios resulted in net increases in NOx, SOx, and CO2 emissions rates summed over all regions of the grid, particularly in regions that were absorbing the electricity generation that was exported out of the drought impacted regions. The costs of electricity dispatching, per volume of water consumption reduced in the drought impacted region, was generally greater than the cost of implementing dry cooling in the same facilities at high electricity demand levels, but comparable to dry cooling at low to moderate demand levels. Finally, while changes in total emissions can be used as a surrogate for air quality impacts, actual changes in air pollutant concentrations, such as ozone, exhibit complex spatial and temporal patterns in response to redispatching, including the creation of hot spots of elevated concentrations. / text

Worldwide, the residential sector is a major consumer of energy. Both the rate at which we consume energy and our use of non-renewable energy resources have come under pressure to change. These changes may occur to some extent by conservation techniques. However, due to living standard expectations, these changes will primarily rely on technology. Many technological opportunities exist to reduce the conventional energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the residential sector, such as: improving energy efficiency, introducing alternative energy conversion technologies, and increasing the use of renewable energy resources. The accurate estimate of the impact that a new technology has on residential sector energy consumption and GHG emissions requires a versatile, reliable, detailed, and high-resolution analytical model. Such models account for the wide range of climate, energy supply, and housing stock characteristics, and are useful for decision makers to evaluate and parametrically compare a wide range of energy efficiency measures and technology strategies when applied to the residential sector. This dissertation presents the development of a new energy consumption and GHG emissions model of the Canadian residential sector. This new model is detailed with regard to the housing stock, comprehensive with regard to the treatment of end-uses (including thermodynamic behaviour and occupant behaviour), and possesses the capability, resolution, and accuracy to assess the impact upon energy consumption and GHG emissions due to the application of alternative and renewable energy technologies to the residential sector. The new model is titled the Canadian Hybrid Residential End-Use Energy and GHG Emissions Model (CHREM). The CHREM advances the state-of-the-art of residential sector energy consumption and GHG emissions modeling by three principal contributions: i) a database of 16,952 unique house descriptions of thermal envelope and energy conversion system information that statistically represent the Canadian housing stock; ii) a “hybrid” modeling approach that integrates the bottom-up statistical and engineering modeling methods to account for occupant behaviour, and provide the capacity to model alternative and renewable energy technologies, such as solar energy and energy storage systems; and iii) a method for the accumulation and treatment of energy and GHG emissions results.

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Electricity generation from wind power and other renewable energy sources is increasing, and their variability introduces new challenges to the existing power system, which cannot cope effectively with highly variable and distributed energy resources. The emergence of smart grid technologies in recent year has seen a paradigm shift in redefining the electrical system of the future, in which controlled response of the demand side is used to balance fluctuations and intermittencies from the generation side. This thesis investigates the impact of smart grid technologies on the integration of wind power into the power system. A smart grid power system model is developed and validated by comparison with a real-life smart grid experiment: the Olympic Peninsula Demonstration Experiment. The smart grid system model is then expanded to include 1000 houses and a generic generation mix of nuclear, hydro, coal, gas and oil based generators. The effect of super-imposing varying levels of wind penetration are then investigated in conjunction with a market model whereby suppliers and demanders bid into a Real-Time Pricing (RTP) electricity market. The results demonstrate and quantify the effectiveness of DR in mitigating the variability of renewable generation. It is also found that the degree to which Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions can be mitigated is highly dependent on the generation mix. A displacement of natural gas based generation during peak demand can for instance lead to an increase in GHG emissions. Of practical significance to power system operators, the simulations also demonstrate that Demand Response (DR) can reduce generator cycling and improve generator efficiency, thus potentially lowering GHG emissions while also reducing wear and tear on generating equipment. / Graduate