This study considered how being Latina, and all the variables inherent in gender and ethnicity intersect when a Latina is a public school district superintendent in Texas; specifically, how a Latina superintendent effectuates meaningful and productive superintendent-board relations. The study employed a phenomenological approach, and utilized semi-structured interviews, collection of artifacts, researcher observations, and a board of education member survey. Through the interpretivist paradigm, elements of gender role theory permeated the study. The notion of the glass ceiling as a barrier that women seeking executive level positions, such as the superintendency, emerged from the discourse of the study. Findings suggest that where professional skills, knowledge, and abilities are concerned there is no gender difference; however, the ability for women to be equally considered for executive level positions, such as the superintendency, suggests that disparity in practice continues to exist. Women are challenged to be equally considered for the superintendency. While women carry a presumably different challenge to balance work and family, the findings suggest that those who have attained the superintendency were able to thrive amidst this challenge. The study also suggests that the three Latina superintendent study participants’ practices in developing and maintaining effective superintendent-board relations sustained prior research in this regard. Where superintendents are strategic and purposeful in their efforts to develop and maintain effective superintendent-board relations, they thrive. In contrast, where superintendents are not strategic and purposeful in their efforts to develop and maintain effective superintendent-board relations, the superintendent’s tenure is abbreviated. / text

The problem for women in the work market has been and is still being widely studied from different domains and fields, there is however still countless fissures linked to it. Even though the gender equality has comprehensively increased in recent decades, it is still apparent in high responsibility positions. This situation caught our attention and stimulated us to analyse the women’s condition within organizations. Scholars have developed different theories linked to organizations, but our complex and fast developing society has surpassed most of these classical theories, making them either partially or totally irrelevant. For instance standards such as hierarchical organizations, individualism and aggressiveness are no longer considered as the most efficient values. This work investigates the barriers that women have to overcome in order to break though leading positions, as well as the identification of female and male leadership and their stereotypes’ consequences. Accordingly, we intend to propose solutions and new approaches liable to help integrating more women in high profile positions. We are aspiring to create a new trend representing successful leadership that is no longer correlated to the male stereotype. The theoretical part engages in theories surrounding female gender leadership as well as gender related barriers, while the empirical method involves the conduction of semi structured interview with women in high management positions, with the aim of setting up a solid ground for analysis and discussion. Due to this fact, we believe that the woman is the future of the organization, therefore we firstly call for the implementation and the reinforcement of the female “role model” and secondly encourage companies to adopt and promote our new concept of “the ecological organization” in order to achieve a more flexible, balanced and sane organizational culture in a foreseeable future.

Successful leadership is the dream of all the students of leadership for which various elements including personality, skills, vision etc. are mentioned by various scholars and researchers, but what is interesting to acknowledge is that all these elements are a manifest of the moment that alter the identity of an ordinary person into a successful leader. These moments are known to be called crucible of leadership.Crucible has a strong connection to the leadership but the mystery of what shapes these crucibles is an ever going process of research and narration. The fascination with studying the recipe of crucible is built on the foundation of my own crucible of leadership that shaped my skills and vision. Considering that, I decided to explore the recipe of crucible for what is close to me and for which I have the most knowledge about, I was ascertain to produce an informative piece of document for the readers with good authenticity and reality in my work. For this purpose I chose to explore the recipe of crucible for Pakistani female leaders.In the crucible of leadership, one of the most important element that plays role is the antecedents of a life story that builds a way to crucible and successful leadership. Thus, my focus of this study was to explore and narrate such antecedents that are the prime source of crucible of leadership for successful Pakistani female leaders. In order to do so, I had to get deep knowledge of the personal life of Pakistani female leaders, which I did by studying their biographies and testimonial accounts building a theory of antecedents as recipe of crucible through the approach of grounded theory.My qualitative analysis and sound coding, suggested a theory that, the most essential antecedents that hasn’t change in generation for Pakistani female leadership are the family antecedents (education, gender equality and a strong belief on principles) and social antecedents (lack of social acceptance), participating highest in shaping the crucible. Whereas, religion is a supportive antecedent but is not significantly impacting the crucible of leadership, as is widely perceived in the world. Furthermore, I concluded my study with highlighting the factor of patriarchy and role expectancy as the major hindrance in the successful female leadership in Pakistan.

Sweden possess the forth place as the most gender equal country in the world (World Economic Forum, 2013). But when it comes to women in higher-level positions, Sweden ends up below the European mean (European Commission, Justice, 2011). How can this be? And more importantly, how can Sweden work to attain gender equality in higher-level positions in the future? Why this gap exists in Sweden and how to reduce it is in need of further investigation and research. The thesis aims to investigate why men keep dominating higher- level positions within organisations in Sweden. A focus has been put on municipalities and their extensive work for gender equality. The thesis will address the extensive work Swedish municipalities have done within gender equality and why they are relatively equal when it comes to gender equality in higher- level positions. Further on it will provide a general understanding of their successful work and how it can be useful in other organisations. Additionally, it will be investigated how this extensive gender equality work, with a primary focus on gender equality policies and plans, and other regulations can help women reach and keep the higher-level positions in an organisation. A qualitative research approach has been used for this research. The primary data was collected through in-depth semi- structured interviews with five Swedish municipalities. The data was later analysed through qualitative data analysis. In conclusion, the most successful factors to include when working towards a gender equal workplace and encouraging more females to aim for higher-level positions are extensive work with gender equality policies and plans, including changes in the recruitment process together with providing options of how to allocate your working hours. This to open up for equal opportunities, excluding gender based prejudices, for those individuals who have the right competence and are interested in possessing a higher-level position in an organisation.

<p>The problem for women in the work market has been and is still being widely studied from different domains and fields, there is however still countless fissures linked to it. Even though the gender equality has comprehensively increased in recent decades, it is still apparent in high responsibility positions. This situation caught our attention and stimulated us to analyse the women’s condition within organizations.</p><p>Scholars have developed different theories linked to organizations, but our complex and fast developing society has surpassed most of these classical theories, making them either partially or totally irrelevant. For instance standards such as hierarchical organizations, individualism and aggressiveness are no longer considered as the most efficient values.</p><p>This work investigates the barriers that women have to overcome in order to break though leading positions, as well as the identification of female and male leadership and their stereotypes’ consequences. Accordingly, we intend to propose solutions and new approaches liable to help integrating more women in high profile positions. We are aspiring to create a new trend representing successful leadership that is no longer correlated to the male stereotype.</p><p>The theoretical part engages in theories surrounding female gender leadership as well as gender related barriers, while the empirical method involves the conduction of semi structured interview with women in high management positions, with the aim of setting up a solid ground for analysis and discussion. Due to this fact, we believe that the woman is the future of the organization, therefore we firstly call for the implementation and the reinforcement of the female “role model” and secondly encourage companies to adopt and promote our new concept of “the ecological organization” in order to achieve a more flexible, balanced and sane organizational culture in a foreseeable future.</p>

Are men and women equally likely to be perceived by people to possess similar requisite characteristics in comparable yet diverse occupations within management, leadership, and entrepreneurship? Because modern workplaces continue to be impacted by the persistence of varying perceptions of men and women about requisite attributes of successful people in several organizational roles, the concept of gender bias and occupational stereotypes has warranted the attention of theoreticians, scholars, and practitioners to a large extent (Koch, D’Mello, & Sackett, 2015; Kuwabara & Thébaud, 2017; Pinker, 2003; Pinker & Spelke, 2005). Although empirical evidence clearly indicates that gender inequalities in the workplace can have a significant effect on peoples’ perceptions about different characteristics of individuals in general and in specific organizational roles, there is a paucity of research examining these perceptions in a variety of leadership positions. Previous literature has investigated the gendered construction and re-construction of these professions but only to a limited extent (Gupta, Turban, Wasti, & Sikdar, 2009; Heilman, 2001, 2012; Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs, & Tamkins, 2004; Koenig, Eagly, Mitchell, & Ristikari, 2011; Kuwabara & Thébaud, 2017; Ryan, Haslam, Hersby, & Bongiorno, 2011; Schein, 1973, 1975, 2001). However, research in years past has not yet examined the full range of industry and entrepreneurial contexts that may create gender typecasting of roles. By extension, the current study focuses on how the gender-differentiated perceptions of men and women influenced the requisite characteristics of successful professional personnel in various managerial, leadership, and entrepreneurial positions. Specifically, given that these professions are influenced by gender-role expectations and stereotypes, this empirical investigation drew from role congruity theory of prejudice (Eagly & Karau, 2002) to examine the relative degree of perceived overlap between the traits associated with specific roles in management, leadership, and entrepreneurship with the traits commonly associated with men and women in general. Primary data were obtained from a diverse sample of 600 (12 x 50) working adults in the United States (N = 600, 300 women, 300 men) between the ages of 21 and 65. This was accomplished using an online survey designed via Qualtrics and administered through Amazon’s MTurk, from the lens of the classic think manager-think male (TMTM) research paradigm (Schein, 1973, 1975, 2001). The instrument used for data collection was the 92-item Schein Descriptive Index (SDI), which was used to describe sex role stereotypes and perceived requisite characteristics of twelve distinct target groups. The results of this study indicate that the perceived requisite traits of successful leaders and entrepreneurs are construed in predominantly masculine terms. These findings support and further inform the nature, existence, significance, and persistence of the “think manager-think male stereotype effect” (TMTM effect) and the “glass ceiling phenomenon” across a variety of managerial, leadership, and entrepreneurial roles, contexts, and industries. The TMTM effect was stronger among high tech entrepreneurs, CEOs, and entrepreneurs in general, whereas it was lessened for entrepreneurs in educational and health care roles, as well as for middle managers. Additionally, consistent with prior research, TMTM effects were generally either more likely to occur, or were stronger in magnitude among male raters than among female raters. These results largely support role congruity theory of gender differences in management and leadership that indicate incongruity of female gender stereotypes in general with stereotypes about high-status and prominent occupational roles in various organizations (Eagly & Karau, 2002). Specifically, the perceived trait overlap was noted to generally be stronger between men in general and successful leaders in various roles than that between women in general and successful leaders in various similar roles. The findings of the current study are expected to be valuable for those seeking to encourage opportunity regardless of candidate gender in management, entrepreneurship, and leadership, as well as for those promoting the role of women’s advancement in these professions. The study’s results have both theoretical and practical implications. Understanding these perceptions can have a significant impact on the gender biases prevalent in society, in organizations, and even across the specific entrepreneurial contexts and industries investigated within the current study. In today’s super-competitive business environment, firms must appreciate the importance of fostering equal opportunity, avoiding gender biases, and facilitating racial and ethnic diversity.

This quantitative study conducted by two students at Umeå University, studies if there are gender differences when it comes to salary and top positions in the accounting and auditing industry in Sweden. Previous studies have found that these differences, or gaps can relate to the glass ceiling theory. This theory is considered a phenomenon and a metephor wherein women can see through the glass to those top levels of the career ladder, but are unable to reach them as there is a ceiling, a gap, to prevent that from happening. Sweden is one of the most gender balanced countries in the world, but despite that the wage equality for similar work in Sweden is 74%. Since women with children work more often than men part-time, this leads to a less positive career, wage development and a poor pension for women. We analyzed previous studies to understand that the glass ceiling theory involved not only salary but also position inequalities based on gender. This information was used to create surveys which we sent electronically (via email) to auditors and accountants all over Sweden. This thesis is based on analysis of the survey and annual reports from 2017. Our results show that there are differences between gender when it comes to wages throughout the career ladder. Men have higher wages than women in the same positions. This applies to both office-level and up to executive positions. Differences in salaries between men and women also apply to both authorized and approved auditors when men have the higher average salary. That is also the same among those who had other leadership positions and among those who had a support function. We could not show major differences in top positions between genders. Most positions are gender balanced, which means that they are between 40-60%, except for at the CEO and partner level which is mostly men and the accounting manager position which is represented only by women. Our results show that there is gender-based inequality in salary but not in position; therefore, the glass ceiling theory is not currently in effect. This is important research as it not only expands knowledge of glass ceiling theory but also into the accounting and auditing fields. It found areas for improvement for both theoretical and practical use. We finish the thesis by referring to recommendations for future studies, such as focusing on lower levels and more accounting economics, authorised consultants, etc. / <p>With consideration to logit regressions for the binary leader variable:Even though <em>Cotter's 4 criteria leader</em> and <em>Leader model 2</em> did not have the highest adjusted R² with ols regression, it is important to see that in a logit regression, which is a more appropriate regression type since the leader variable is binary, that gender was not significant. Therefore, the conclusions remain the same.</p>

Cette étude a pour but de s’interroger sur l’existence d’un plafond de verre dans les entreprises en France et en Turquie, et ensuite de réaliser une analyse comparée des résultats.Cette thèse souligne les enjeux du plafond de verre dans une entreprise internationale en France et en Turquie en tenant compte de la critique des théories très diffusées (=dominantes) de la ségrégation des sexes dans le travail, sur le marché du travail et dans l’organisation. Selon l’approche de Marc Maurice et Col, les concepts sont utilisés pour expliquer les problèmes de représentation dans le travail, sur le marché du travail et dans l’organisation.Le champ d’étude de ce projet a été mené auprès d’hommes et de femmes cadres travaillant dans une entreprise électrique dans les deux pays. Deux principaux types de données ont été collectés : premièrement, les données récoltées au travers d’entretiens et complétées par des notes de terrain ; et deuxièmement les données provenant de matériaux facilement disponibles tels que des recherches internationales, nationales et organisationnelles, ainsi que les publications des entreprises. Dans notre première recherche exploratoire, nous avons mené des entretiens auprès de 20 femmes cadres dans 12 entreprises internationales dans les deux pays. L’objectif était d’identifier notre question de recherche. Ensuite, nous avons choisi une entreprise dans laquelle nous avons mené notre principal terrain d’enquête. Dans cette entreprise, l’enquête turque était constituée de 15 entretiens enregistrés avec des femmes cadres qui avaient des positions de management élevées. Pour l’enquête française, 15 entretiens enregistrés ont été menés.L’analyse des résultats révèle certaines différentes culturelles en matière de normes de genre, de sentiment d’appartement et d’altérité au sein les stratégies genrées de fermeture professionnelle et les approches organisationnelles pour souligner les enjeux de l’égalité de sexe. En effet, nous souhaitons étudier le fameux phénomène du « Plafond de verre » dans l’organisation en France et en Turquie. Le choix de ces deux pays est justifié par le désir d’étudier deux modèles distincts (européen et non-européen) qui s’insèrent dans deux systèmes législatifs différents. De plus, les deux pays ont des similarités malgré des différences telles que la culture, l’économie du pays, et leurs histoires. Cependant, malgré ces différences, le personnel travaillant dans une entreprise internationale était conscient des obstacles communs basés sur le genre, dans les deux pays.De plus, la situation économique dans le pays peut aussi influencer les managers pour faire évoluer la hiérarchie dans l’entreprise. Cela indique que le modèle produit dans un pays donné ne peut pas automatiquement s’appliquer dans un autre contexte institutionnel et culturel sans prise en compte des différences contextuelles (perceptions éthiques et ses fondements, religion, situation macroéconomique, etc.). / For the purposes of the comparative study, we will address in turn France and Turkey, issues of equality women/men in workforce, policies shelved by the government and companies and the paradigm shift that is taking place and that tries to control retention of women workers. Then we devote a large part in this chapter to explaining our research problem. After clarification of the various issues involved, we will unveil our research question and the specific issues that we intend to develop. We proceed by following a review of the literature on the research that exists on the issue of women’s management practices and continued employment of women. Finally, we conclude this section with the reasons for the relevance of our contribution in this field of research.Firstly, we explain the place of women in heart of the country with historical background of women and we give a definition of the workforce of women in each country and we mention the famous glass ceiling phenomenon. In this chapter, we give many figures and we note that despite our efforts to ensure that the comparison between France and Turkey is as rigorous as possible, we have not always been able to provide similar figures for both countries, since the calculation methods (including projections) are not the same. However, we have tried to demonstrate based on available data the impact of the glass ceiling effect in both cases studied. The main objective of this thesis is to draw attention to the barriers facing female executive directors, even after they have been promoted to middle and top level. These barriers appear to constitute a ‘second glass ceiling’ at the highest levels within large French and Turkish companies. The increasing number of women in the labor force particularly those of childbearing age, has been accompanied by increasing needs for childcare, flexible working arrangements and greater demands for equality in the workplace. This study particularly focused on the glass ceiling issues and the main career obstacles for female top managers/executives in Turkey and France. Prior to collecting the required data, a review was carried out in both countries, the current availability, and attitudinal studies related to the ‘glass ceiling’. A comparative descriptive analysis was conducted to show differences in career barriers for women and policies between countries. The first field study of this project generated 20 semi-structured interviews with 12 main questions concerning their career background and the glass ceiling syndrome with staff from 12 international companies in France and in Turkey. Interviews lasted for approximately one hour and were conducted in France and Turkey. Turkish and French women, despite the geographical, historical, and cultural ditferences between their countries, share a common position as a disadvantaged group in employment. The feminist movements in both countries engage in different debates and activities to promote change towards equality. The statistical indicators of employment and pay by sex, legislative provision and the sociological studies of equality of opportunity in employment in both countries suggest that there is still many opportunities for progress towards equality.

Research shows that although the representation of women in the workforce has increased over the past couple of decades, there are many industries that still remain male dominated. In addition, it is generally known that such male-dominated industries have minimal female representation at their managerial levels. One such male-dominated industry in South Africa is the air traffic control (ATC) industry. Women represent about 30 percent of the industry, which suggest their status in the industry is still quite low. The purpose of this study was to examine male and female air traffic controllers’ perceptions of factors that facilitate and constrain women’s career advancement, and to determine whether there were any significant differences in their opinions. The study also identified what male and female air traffic controllers (ATCOs) think the industry can do to help prepare women for leadership positions in the industry, and how to eliminate barriers that may exist to women’s career advancement. Data for this study were collected through an online questionnaire adapted from Zhong’s (2006) study on a convenience sample (N = 147) of male and female ATCOs in South Africa. The data analysis was executed by using factor analysis and analysis of variance (ANOVA). Content analysis was used to analyse the two open-ended questions. The findings from the ANOVA suggest that there were four significant gender differences in perceptions of the Personal effort/External support, Attitude/Internal character, Equity, and Family issues. There also were significant differences in opinion on External support/Personal effort, Attitude/Internal character, Equity and Family issues, depending on the number of children the respondents had, and significant differences of marital status on the External support/Personal effort and Family issues. Finally, significant differences were found in the years’ experience variable for Attitude/Internal character. In response to the open-ended questions, most of the respondents suggested that the ATC industry should offer training programmes to improve awareness of possible barriers within the industry, as well as to offer advice on how to overcome them and improve their leadership skills. This could be done by creating programmes on the knowledge and skills needed to advance one’s career or by providing mentors or role models. Future research could compare the perceptions of employees from different race groups and their perceptions of women’s career advancement in male-dominated industries. It is also recommended that researchers conduct in-depth qualitative interviews together with the current questionnaire to evaluate perceptions of the career advancement of women more critically. / Dissertation (MCom)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Human Resource Management / unrestricted

This descriptive study examines the gender pay gap across the income distribution in metropolitan and nonmetropolitan areas in the United States in two periods in the 2000’s. In metro areas, the raw gender pay gapgrows larger in the top of the income distribution. In non-metro areas however, the raw gender pay gap isrelatively even in the upper tail of the distribution and does not show this accelerating pattern. Moreover,the study takes a quantile regression approach to measure the adjusted gender pay gaps conditional onhuman capital variables. Comparisons show that the raw gender pay gap has decreased over time, while thecorresponding adjusted gender pay gap has increased over time. This seems to be explained mainly by theincrease in women’s educational attainment, but also convergence of men’s and women’s work experience.In non-metro areas, this generates an adjusted gap that is substantially bigger in the top quantiles in thelatter period. In metro areas, the pattern of a successively widening gap in the top of the distribution persists.