N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) are heterotetramers containing two obligatory glycine-binding (GluN1) and two glutamate/glycine-binding (GluN2/3) subunits. These receptors mediate excitatory synaptic transmission in the central nervous system and play a key role in high order neuronal processes as a learning and formation of memory. It has been shown that dysregulation of NMDARs is involved in the pathophysiology of neurological and psychiatric disorders. Each receptor is composed of four protomers exhibiting a conserved domain organization. The most distal part to the cell membrane is the amino-terminal domain that is linked to the ligand binding domain (LBD), which is connected to the pore-forming transmembrane domain (TMD) communicating with the intracellular carboxy-terminal domain. LBD and TMD are connected via three polypeptide chains - linkers. Channel opening is the key step in the NMDAR gating that allows the flux of ions across the membrane. The energy of agonist binding-evoked conformational changes is transferred via linkers to M3 helices forming an ion channel. The rearrangement of M3 helices in activated receptor makes the central cavity of the channel accessible. The details of energy transfer are not yet fully characterized, although accurate knowledge of the receptor gating...

Background: The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is a brain area involved in modulating behavior associated with social interaction, disruption of which is a core feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Functional brain imaging studies demonstrate abnormalities of the ACC in ASD as compared to typically developing control patients. However, little is known regarding the cellular basis of these functional deficits in ASD. Pyramidal neurons in the ACC are excitatory glutamatergic neurons and key cellular mediators of the neural output of the ACC. This study was designed to investigate the potential role of ACC pyramidal neurons in ASD brain pathology. Methods: Postmortem ACC tissue from carefully matched ASD and typically developing control donors was obtained from two national brain collections. Pyramidal neurons and surrounding astrocytes were separately collected from layer III of the ACC by laser capture microdissection. Isolated RNA was subjected to reverse transcription and endpoint PCR to determine gene expression levels for 16 synaptic genes relevant to glutamatergic neurotransmission. Cells were also collected from the prefrontal cortex (Brodmann area 10) to examine those genes demonstrating differences in expression in the ACC comparing typically developing and ASD donors. Results: The level of NTRK2 expression was robustly and significantly lower in pyramidal neurons from ASD donors as compared to typically developing donors. Levels of expression of GRIN1, GRM8, SLC1A1, and GRIP1 were modestly lower in pyramidal neurons from ASD donors, but statistical significance for these latter genes did not survive correction for multiple comparisons. No significant expression differences of any genes were found in astrocytes laser captured from the same neocortical area. In addition, expression levels of NTRK2 and other synaptic genes were normal in pyramidal neurons laser captured from the prefrontal cortex. Conclusions: These studies demonstrate a unique pathology of neocortical pyramidal neurons of the ACC in ASD. NTRK2 encodes the tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), transmission through which neurotrophic factors modify differentiation, plasticity, and synaptic transmission. Reduced pyramidal neuron NTRK2 expression in the ACC could thereby contribute to abnormal neuronal activity and disrupt social behavior mediated by this brain region.

Glutamate receptors are promising drug targets for the treatment of urgent suicide ideation and chronic major depressive disorder (MDD) that may lead to suicide completion. Antagonists of glutamatergic NMDA receptors reduce depressive symptoms faster than traditional antidepressants, with beneficial effects occurring within hours. Glutamate is the prominent excitatory input to the noradrenergic locus coeruleus (LC). The LC is activated by stress in part through this glutamatergic input. Evidence has accrued demonstrating that the LC may be overactive in MDD, while treatment with traditional antidepressants reduces LC activity. Pathological alterations of both glutamatergic and noradrenergic systems have been observed in depressive disorders, raising the prospect that disrupted glutamate-norepinephrine interactions may be a central component to depression and suicide pathobiology. This study examined the gene expression levels of glutamate receptors in post-mortem noradrenergic LC neurons from subjects with MDD (most died by suicide) and matched psychiatrically normal controls. Gene expression levels of glutamate receptors or receptor subunits were measured in LC neurons collected by laser capture microdissection. MDD subjects exhibited significantly higher expression levels of the NMDA receptor subunit genes, GRIN2B and GRIN2C, and the metabotropic receptor genes, GRM4 and GRM5, in LC neurons. Gene expression levels of these receptors in pyramidal neurons from prefrontal cortex (BA10) did not reveal abnormalities in MDD. These findings implicate disrupted glutamatergic-noradrenergic interactions at the level of the stress-sensitive LC in MDD and suicide, and provide a theoretical mechanism by which glutamate antagonists may exert rapid antidepressant effects.

Background: The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is a brain area involved in modulating behavior associated with social interaction, disruption of which is a core feature of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Functional brain imaging studies demonstrate abnormalities of the ACC in ASD as compared to typically developing control patients. However, little is known regarding the cellular basis of these functional deficits in ASD. Pyramidal neurons in the ACC are excitatory glutamatergic neurons and key cellular mediators of the neural output of the ACC. This study was designed to investigate the potential role of ACC pyramidal neurons in ASD brain pathology. Methods: Postmortem ACC tissue from carefully matched ASD and typically developing control donors was obtained from two national brain collections. Pyramidal neurons and surrounding astrocytes were separately collected from layer III of the ACC by laser capture microdissection. Isolated RNA was subjected to reverse transcription and endpoint PCR to determine gene expression levels for 16 synaptic genes relevant to glutamatergic neurotransmission. Cells were also collected from the prefrontal cortex (Brodmann area 10) to examine those genes demonstrating differences in expression in the ACC comparing typically developing and ASD donors. Results: The level of NTRK2 expression was robustly and significantly lower in pyramidal neurons from ASD donors as compared to typically developing donors. Levels of expression of GRIN1, GRM8, SLC1A1, and GRIP1 were modestly lower in pyramidal neurons from ASD donors, but statistical significance for these latter genes did not survive correction for multiple comparisons. No significant expression differences of any genes were found in astrocytes laser captured from the same neocortical area. In addition, expression levels of NTRK2 and other synaptic genes were normal in pyramidal neurons laser captured from the prefrontal cortex. Conclusions: These studies demonstrate a unique pathology of neocortical pyramidal neurons of the ACC in ASD. NTRK2 encodes the tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), transmission through which neurotrophic factors modify differentiation, plasticity, and synaptic transmission. Reduced pyramidal neuron NTRK2 expression in the ACC could thereby contribute to abnormal neuronal activity and disrupt social behavior mediated by this brain region.

The plant glutamate receptors (GLRs) are homologs of mammalian ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) and are hypothesized to be potential amino acid sensors in plants. Since their first discovery in 1998, the members of plant GLRs have been implicated in diverse processes such as C/N ratio sensing, root formation, pollen germination and plant-pathogen interaction. However, the exact properties of these channels, such as the spectrum of ligands, ion specificities, and subunit compositions are still not well understood. It is well established that animal iGluRs form homo- or hetero-tetramers in order to form ligand-gated cation channels. The first aspect of this research was to determine if plant GLRs likewise require different subunits to form functional channels. A modified yeast-2-hybrid system approach was initially taken and applied to 14 of the 20 AtGLRs to identify a number of candidate interactors in yeast. Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET), which measures the transfer of energy between interacting molecules, was performed in mammalian cells to confirm interaction between a few of those candidates. Interestingly, despite an abundance of overlapping co-localization between heteromeric combinations, only homomeric interactions were identified between GLRs 1.1 and 3.4 in HEK293 cells. Further, amino acids have been implicated in signaling between plants and microbes, but the mechanisms for amino acid perception in defense responses are far from being understood. Recently it was demonstrated that calcium responses initiated by bacterial and fungal microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) were diminished in seedlings treated with known agonists and antagonists of mammalian iGluRs, suggesting potential roles of GLRs in pathogen responses. Analysis of publicly available microarray data shows altered gene expression of a sub-fraction of GLRs in response to pathogen infection and bacterial elicitors. Thus, the second goal of my PhD research was aimed at determining whether GLRs are involved in the interaction between plants and pathogens. Gene expression changes of a number of candidate GLRs as well as pathogen growth was examined in response to the plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000. Interestingly, single gene and multi-gene deficient plants responded differently with regards to pathogen susceptibility, likely as a result of functional compensation between GLRs. / Ph. D.

Ο μυς weaver αποτελεί ένα γενετικό ζωϊκό μοντέλο της νόσου Parkinson που χαρακτηρίζεται από προοδευτική εκφύλιση των κυττάρων της μελαινοραβδωτής ντοπαμινεργικής οδού. Η μεταβολή της γλουταμινεργικής διαβίβασης στο κύκλωμα των βασικών γαγγλίων ως απόκριση στη ντοπαμινεργική εκφύλιση έχει προταθεί ότι εμπλέκεται στην παθοφυσιολογία της νόσου Parkinson. Οι ιδιότητες των υποδοχέων του γλουταμινικού εξαρτώνται από τη σύνθεση των υπομονάδων τους και τη φωσφορυλίωσή αυτών, καθώς και από τη σύνθεση του πρωτεϊνικού συμπλόκου που σχηματίζεται ενδοκυττάρια μετά την ενεργοποίηση των υποδοχέων, μέρος του οποίου είναι η ασβεστιοεξαρτώμενη κινάση της καλμοδουλίνης ΙΙ (CaMKII), ένα μόριο σημαντικό στη συναπτική πλαστικότητα. Στην παρούσα διατριβή μελετήσαμε, με την μέθοδο της ανοσοαποτύπωσης, σε ολικό ομογενοποίημα ραβδωτού μυών weaver και φυσιολογικών, τις αλλαγές που παρατηρούνται στην πρωτεϊνική έκφραση και φωσφορυλίωση των υπομονάδων των υποδοχέων του γλουταμινικού και της αCaMKII στις ηλικίες των 3 και 6 μηνών. Στην ηλικία των 3 μηνών αναδείχθηκε στατιστικά σημαντική αύξηση στους μύες weaver σε σχέση με τους φυσιολογικούς των πρωτεϊνικών επιπέδων των υπομονάδων GluN2A και GluN2B του υποδοχέα NMDA κατά 74% και 92% και της υπομονάδας GluA1 του υποδοχέα AMPA κατά 108%. Στην ηλικία των 6 μηνών, δεν ανευρέθησαν αλλαγές στο ραβδωτό των μυών weaver στα επίπεδα έκφρασης των GluN2A και GluA1, ενώ παρατηρήθηκε στατιστικά σημαντική αύξηση της GluN2B κατά 21%. Επιπλέον, στην ηλικία των 3 μηνών αναδείχθηκε στατιστικά σημαντική αύξηση των επιπέδων φωσφορυλίωσης της GluN2B στη σερίνη 1303 κατά 40% και της GluA1 στις σερίνες 831 και 845 κατά 40% και 38%, αντίστοιχα, στους μύες weaver σε σχέση με τους φυσιολογικούς, ενώ στην ηλικία των 6 μηνών αύξηση της φωσφορυλιωμένης GluN2B κατά 22%. Επιπρόσθετα, τα αποτελέσματά μας ανέδειξαν στο ραβδωτό των μυών weaver στατιστικά σημαντική αύξηση της φωσφoρυλίωσης της αCaMKII στη θρεονίνη 286 κατά 176%, ενώ τα επίπεδα της ολικής CaMKII δεν παρουσίασαν στατιστικά σημαντική διαφορά είτε στους 3 είτε στους 6 μήνες. Τα αποτελέσματα μας υποδεικνύουν ότι διακριτοί βαθμοί εκφύλισης των ντοπαμινεργικών νευρώνων επηρεάζουν με διαφορετικό τρόπο την έκφραση και φωσφορυλίωση των υποδοχέων γλουταμινικού και της αCaMKII στο ραβδωτό. Τα ευρήματα σε αυτό το γενετικό παρκινσονικό μοντέλο προτείνουν ότι η γλουταμινεργική διαβίβαση στο ραβδωτό παίζει πιθανά σημαντικό ρόλο στη συναπτική πλαστικότητα και στην κινητική συμπεριφορά, που έπονται της σταδιακής και χρόνιας έλλειψης ντοπαμίνης στη νόσο Parkinson, με βιοχημικά επακόλουθα πέρα από αυτά που παρατηρούνται στα οξέα τοξικά μοντέλα. / Weaver mutant mouse is a valuable tool to further our understanding of Parkinson’s disease (PD) pathogenesis since dopaminergic neurons of the nigro-striatal pathway undergo spontaneous and progressive cell death. Abnormalities in striatal glutamate transmission as a response to dopaminergic degenaration have been associated with the pathophysiology of Parkinson disease. The physiological properties of glutamate receptors depend on their subunit composition and phosphorylation along with the composition of the protein complex formed downstream of receptor activation, where α-subunit of calcium–calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (αCaMKII), a molecule important to synaptic plasticity, participates. In the present study, using immuoblotting in total striatal homogenate, we investigated the changes in protein expression and phosphorylation of glutamate receptor subunits and αCaMKII at the end of the third and sixth postnatal month. We found increased expression levels of GluN2A and GluN2B subunits of NMDA receptors and GluA1 subunit of AMPA receptors by 74%, 92% and 108% in the 3-month-old weaver striatum compared to control. In the 6-month-old weaver striatum, no changes were detected in GluN2A and GluA1 expression levels, whereas GluN2B showed a 21% statistically significant increase. Our results also indicated increased phosphorylations of GluN2B at serine 1303 by 40% and GluA1 at serines 831 and 845 by 40% and 38% in the 3-month-old and increased GluN2B phosphorylation by 22% in the 6-month-old weaver striatum compared to control. Furthermore, our results showed increased pCaMKIIThr286 phosphorylation by 176% in the 6 month-old weaver striatum, while total CaMKII protein levels were not altered at either 3- or 6-month-old weaver. Our results indicate that distinct degrees of DA neuron degeneration differentially affect expression and phosphorylation of striatal glutamate receptors and αCaMKII. Findings on this genetic parkinsonian model suggest that striatal glutamatergic signaling may play an important role in synaptic plasticity and motor behavior that follow progressive and chronic dopamine depletion in PD with biochemical consequences beyond those seen in acute toxic models.

The main mammalian circadian pacemaker stored in suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus (SCN) is adapted to changes in the external environement by synchronization of its endogenous period with periodic changes of light and dark during day and night. The information about light travels via glutamatergic retinohypothalamic tract to the ventrolateral part of the SCN. Activation of ionotropic glutamate receptors in this area provably mediates the transfer of information about light on the transcriptional mechanism of light-sensitive cells. The role of the NMDA type of ionotropic glutamate receptors is well studied in this field and it is known that some NMDA receptor subunits show a circadian rhythm and an increased expression after a light pulse. Signalization via AMPA type receptors is much less elucidated. The aim of this thesis was to determine which AMPA receptor subunits are expressed in the SCN of the rat and if these subunits show a daily rhythm of expression and a reactivity to light pulse, as well as to outline the possible roles of distinct AMPA receptor subunits in the SCN. Keywords: circadian rhythms, suprachiasmatic nuclei, glutamate receptors, AMPA

A doença de Chagas, também conhecida como tripanossomíase americana é causada pelo protozoário flagelado Trypanosoma cruzi e afeta aproximadamente 10 milhões de pessoas em áreas endêmicas do México, America central e do Sul. A quimioterapia disponível atualmente limita-se a dois compostos: Nifurtimox e o Benzonidazol. Ambos os fármacos reduzem os sintomas da doença e a mortalidade das pessoas infectadas, quando utilizadas na fase aguda, mas sua eficácia na fase crônica é controversa. Além do mais apresentam vários efeitos colaterais. O T. cruzi é capaz de utilizar carboidratos e aminoácidos como fonte de energia e carbono. O nosso grupo tem estudado o envolvimento do glutamato na resistência do parasita ao estresse térmico, oxidativo e metabólico como também a importância do aminoácido GABA no metabolismo do T. cruzi, visto que este também é transportado pelo parasita. Nesse contexto, o objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar a interferência de fármacos, que atuam via receptores ou transportadores de GABA e glutamato, no ciclo de vida do T. cruzi. Os fármacos selecionados foram: Vigabatrina, Pregabalina, MK-801, MTEP e Memantina. Os resultados demonstram que apenas Memantina apresentou um melhor efeito tripanocida. Inibiu a proliferação de formas epimastigotas, interferiu na metaciclogênese, como também afetou o metabolismo energético do parasita com a diminuição dos níveis de ATP, além de desencadear mecanismos que levam a apoptose das formas epimastigotas. Memantina também interferiu no ciclo intracelular do parasita, mais especificamente no estágio amastigota. Interessantemente as fases do ciclo do parasita que são mais afetadas, são as fases que requerem mais energia: estágios replicativos (amastigota e epimastigota), como também os processos de diferenciação e invasão celular. Apesar de apresentar valores de IC50 que podem ser considerados altos em relação aos valores descritos para formas epimastigotas tratadas com Benzonidazol, esses resultados mostram perspectivas promissoras, visto que o Memantina poderá ser utilizado como composto líder para o desenho de derivados com atividade tripanocida otimizada. / Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis is caused by the flagellate protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi and affects approximately 10 million people in endemic areas of Mexico, Central America and South America, with about 25 million people living in areas at risk of infection. The currently available chemotherapy is limited to two compounds, which are: Nifurtimox and Benznidazole. Both drugs reduce symptoms of the disease and mortality of infected people when used in the acute phase, but its efficacy in chronic phase (phase in which the majority of cases are diagnosed) is still controversial. Moreover these drugs have several side effects. T. cruzi is able to utilize carbohydrate and amino acids as carbon and energy source. Our group has studied the involvement of glutamate in parasite resistance to thermal, oxidative and metabolic stress, as well as the importance of the amino acid GABA metabolism in T. cruzi. The aim of this study was to evaluate the interference of drugs, that act in GABA and glutamate transporters or receptors, in the life cycle of T. cruzi. The drugs selected were: vigabatrin, pregabalin, MK-801, memantine and MTEP. The results showed that only memantine has a better trypanocidal effect. Memantine inhibited the proliferation of epimastigotes, interfered in metacyclogenesis, and affected the energy metabolism of the parasite with decreased levels of ATP, and trigger mechanisms that lead to apoptosis of epimastigotes. Moreover interferes with intracellular cycle of the parasite, specifically in amastigote stage. Interesting that stages of the parasite that require more energy are more affected: replicative stages (epimastigote and amastigote) as well as the processes of differentiation and cell invasion. IC50 value is more than that described to epimastigotes treateds with Benznidazole, but Memantine could be used as leader compound for the design of drugs with optimized trypanocidal activity.

Les récepteurs métabotropes au glutamate (mGluR) sont des RCPG de classe C. Ils sont exprimés dans le système nerveux central où, suite à l'activation par le glutamate, ils participent à la modulation de la transmission nerveuse. En raison de leur rôle essentiel dans la régulation de l'activité synaptique, ils représentent des cibles potentielles pour le développement de médicaments contre les troubles neurologiques et psychiatriques telles que la schizophrénie, l'épilepsie, l'anxiété et la douleur. Mon projet de recherche de doctorat a porté sur l'étude du mécanisme d'activation du domaine extracellulaire de liaison au ligand du mGluR (ECD), avec un accent particulier sur ce qui différencie au niveau moléculaire un agoniste partiel d'un agoniste total. A cette fin, j'ai utilisé une méthode innovante à l'échelle de la molécule unique appelée Transfert d'Energie par Résonance de Forster, développé pour l'étude de la dynamique conformationnelle des molécules individuelles à l'échelle de la nanoseconde. J'ai réussi à montrer que le dimère d'ECD oscille entre une conformation active et une conformation de repos sur une échelle de temps de ~100μsec et que les ligands influencent les vitesses de transition entre ces états avec des vitesses intermédiaires pour les agonistes partiels. Ces résultats sont validés par l'utilisation de mutants spécifiques et indiquent clairement que le rôle des ligands n'est pas de stabiliser une conformation donnée mais de modifier le comportement dynamique du récepteur. L'ensemble de ces résultats contribuent à une meilleure description du mécanisme d'activation des mGluRs, et ouvrent potentiellement la voie à la compréhension des RCPG en général. / Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors (mGluRs) are class C GPCRs, expressed throughout the central nervous system. They participate in the long term modulation of neural transmission following activation by the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. This critical role in the regulation of synaptic activity makes them promising targets in the development of drugs for the treatment of various neurologic and psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, epilepsy, anxiety and pain relief. My Ph.D. research project has focused on the study of the activation mechanism of the mGluR extracellular ligand binding Venus-Flytrap domain (VFT), with particular emphasis on the differences between partial and full agonists on a molecular level. To this aim, I have used a state-of-the-art single molecule Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (smFRET) approach, developed for the study of conformational dynamics of single molecules on the nanosecond to millisecond timescale. I have managed to show that the VFT-dimer constantly oscillates between an active and a resting conformation on a ~100µsec timescale. I also discovered that the role of ligands is to influence the transition rate between these boundary states, and that partial agonists display intermediate transition rates. My results, supported by the use of specific mutants, clearly indicate that the role of ligands is not to stabilize a given conformation but to modify the overall dynamic of the receptor, which favors a conformational selection mechanism. Altogether, these results represent a most-valuable contribution to the better understanding of the activation mechanism of mGluRs, and potentially GPCRs in general.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Indiana University, 2010. / Title from screen (viewed on March 3, 2010). Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI). Advisor(s): Joseph A. DiMicco, Sherry F. Queener, Daniel E. Rusyniak, Michael R. Vasko. Includes vitae. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 126-147).