Peptide hormones are responsible for cellular functions critical to the survival of an organism. Approximately 50% of all known peptide hormones are post-translationally modified at the C-terminus. Enzymatic oxidative conversion of C-terminal glycine extended peptide precursors results in an a-amidated peptide and glyoxylate. Peptidylglycine a-amidating monooxygenase (PAM) is the single known enzyme responsible for catalyzing this reaction. PAM is an O2, Cu(II), and Zn(II) dependent bifunctional enzyme. Initially, PAM hydroxylates the glycyl a-carbon followed by dealkylation of the hydroxylated intermediate to an a-amidated product and glyoxylate. PAM is also responsible for the conversion of glycine extended fatty acids to fatty acid amides and glyoxylate. PAM catalyzes the activation of all glycine-extended prohormones including biomolecules ranging from neuro to physio-homeostatic hormones. Identification of a-amidated hormones from a biological source has been severely hindered by the lack of a specific assay for this distinctive class of biological hormones, indicating that numerous a-amidated hormones remain undiscovered. Based on the selective in situ chemistry of PAM, a novel and specific assay was developed for the discovery of a-amidated hormones. The identification of novel a-amidated hormones will lead to an increased understanding of post-translational modifications and will pioneer a new understanding of a-amidated hormone biosynthesis, regulation, and bioactivity. Discovery of novel a-amidated biomolecules could also lead to their use as pharmaceuticals as there are several currently marketed a-amidated peptide based pharmaceuticals.Inhibition of PAM in cell culture leads to the accumulation of glycine-extended hormones in the conditioned medium. The medium was fractionated by chromatographic techniques and each specific fraction was then assayed by the newly developed platform technology for the presence of a-amidated hormones. For every a-amidated hormone synthesized by PAM, glyoxylate is also formed. Based on this 1:1 molar ratio, several novel spectrophotometric, fluorescent, and chemi-luminescent enzyme linked assays for glyoxylate were developed, which when utilized on cell culture fractions proved positive for the identification of a-amidated hormones. Each novel spectroscopic assay was independently verified by a variety of known methodologies. Moreover the assay was utilized to identify two known a-amidated hormones accumulated from cell culture, which were further verified by Mass Spectral analysis.

The origin of the first RNA polymers is central to most current theories regarding the origin of life. However, difficulties associated with the prebiotic formation of RNA have lead many researchers to conclude that simpler polymers, or proto-RNAs, preceded RNA. These earlier polymers would have been replaced by RNA over the course of evolution. A remaining difficulty for this theory is that the de novo synthesis of a feasible proto-RNA has not yet been demonstrated by plausible prebiotic reactions. This thesis focuses on two problems associated with prebiotic proto-RNA synthesis: The formation of nucleosides and the necessity of reversible backbone linkages for error correction in nucleic acid polymers. "The Nucleoside Problem", or the lack of success in forming pyrimidine nucleosides by plausible prebiotic reactions, represents a significant stumbling block to the RNA world hypothesis. Nearly four decades ago Orgel and coworkers demonstrated that the purine nucleosides adenosine and inosine are synthesized by heating and drying their respective bases and ribose in the presence of magnesium, but these reaction conditions do not yield the pyrimidine nucleosides uridine or cytidine from their respective bases. In this thesis a potential solution to The Nucleoside Problem is hypothesized based upon a proposed chemical mechanism for nucleoside formation. This hypothesis is supported by the successful synthesis of 2-pyrimidinone nucleosides by a plausible prebiotic reaction in good yield, demonstrating that pyrimidine nucleosides could have been available in the prebiotic chemical inventory, but that uridine and cytidine were likely not abundant. Reversible backbone linkages are necessary to provide a mechanism for error correction in non-enzymatic template-directed syntheses of proto-RNAs. In this thesis, acetals are explored as low-energy, reversible linkage groups for nucleosides in polymers. The synthesis of glyoxylate-acetal nucleic acids (gaNAs) through simple heating-drying reactions from neutral aqueous solutions is demonstrated, and these linkages are shown to be hydrolytically stable under a considerable range of solution conditions. Computational models demonstrate that the glyoxylate linkage is an excellent electronic and isosteric replacement for phosphate. Molecular dynamics simulations also indicate that a gaNA duplex would have structural properties that closely match a phosphate-linked RNA helix, suggesting the possibility for cross-pairing between gaNAs and RNAs, allowing for sequence transfer and genetic continuity through the evolution from proto-RNAs to RNA. The principles illustrated in this thesis by 2-pyrimidinone nucleoside and gaNA synthesis can be extended to other prebiotic condensation reactions. Factors affecting condensation yield, such as thermodynamics, kinetics, reactant solubility, and salt effects, are summarized herein.

A produção e emissão de poluentes é geralmente derivada da alta atividade humana, por meio da utilização dos recursos naturais, desenvolvimento de infraestrutura e construção, atividades agrícolas, desenvolvimento industrial, urbanização, turismo e uma série de outras atividades. Poluente é tudo o que é introduzido pelo homem, de forma direta ou indireta, de substâncias ou energia que resultem ou possam resultar em efeitos adversos a vida. As principais classes de poluentes são os pesticidas, poluentes orgânicos, nutrientes, óleos, isótopos radioativos, metais pesados, patogênicos, sedimentares, lixo e escombros entre outros. O descarte em efluentes aquáticos é uma prática antiga no modo como lidamos com nossos dejetos e em consequência disso, a maioria dos ambientes aquáticos encontram-se poluídos em maior ou menor grau. Dentre os poluentes orgânicos, encontramos uma classe de moléculas denominadas de hidrocarbonetos policíclicos aromáticos (HPA). Os HPAs são uma grande família de compostos derivados da fusão de anéis benzênicos que contém dois anéis benzeno fundidos e seus derivados, até estruturas contendo 10 anéis. A toxicidade dos HPAs é resultado de sua hidrofobicidade. Estes compostos podem induzir mudanças conformacionais na estrutura de biomembranas resultando em aumento em sua permeabilidade. Como consequência, a capacidade fotossintética desses organismos é prejudicada podendo levar a sérios distúrbios na cadeia de transporte de elétrons e desacoplamento da fosforilação oxidativa. O Antraceno (ANT) é uma molécula formada pela fusão de 3 anéis benzênicos e é um dos 16 HPAs prioritários segunda a US EPA, e é classificado como muito tóxico para organismos aquáticos e que pode causar efeitos adversos de longo prazo no ambiente aquático. Além disso, ANT é facilmente fotoxidado a produtos ainda mais tóxicos, especialmente quinonas, que interferem na respiração e na fotossíntese, causando problemas no desenvolvimento das algas levando a falência do ecossistema devido à diminuição da biomassa, deficiência de oxigênio e inibição de processos de desintoxicação. A quantidade de informações referentes aos efeitos causados ao metabolismos destes organismos fotossintetizantes é bastante limitada e para suprir esta carência, utilizamos a microalga modelo Chlamydomonas reinhardtii com a finalidade de ampliar o conhecimento dos efeitos tóxicos de antraceno no metabolismo destes organismos utilizando uma abordagem de metabolômica que utiliza GC-MS. Como resposta metabólica a exposição de ANT, ácidos graxos acumularam em C. reinhardtii. De forma semelhante, outra resposta encontrada foi acumulo de aminoácidos. Com exceção de valina, todos os aminoácidos encontrados em nossa análise por GC-MS se acumularam nas culturas expostas a ANT. Outra molécula importante encontrada em nossas análises foi a glutationa, possivelmente causada pela produção de EROs. Muitos ácidos carboxílicos foram encontrados em nossas análises e entre estes, a via metabólica mais impactada foi o ciclo do glioxilato. Juntamente com acumulo de glioxilato, muitos intermediários do ciclo do ácido cítrico foram encontrados tais como succinato e malato. Para tanto, o acumulo de malato é dependente de glioxilato e acetato, presente no meio de cultura. O produto deste gene catalisa a reação entre glioxilato e acetil-CoA formando malato como produto final. Com estes dados, podemos sugerir que para compensar pela fotossíntese deficiente, o metabolismo heterotrófico de acetato produzindo acetil-CoA é uma fonte importante de energia, e a via de glioxilato tem um papel central durante o estresse causado por ANT. Além disso, a incorporação de carbonos através do ciclo do glioxilato pode permitir a síntese de outras moléculas mais complexas como aminoácidos, lipídeos e carboidratos. / The production and emission of pollutant are often derived from human activities, such as utilizing natural resources, developing infrastructure, agriculture and industry among others. Pollutant is defined as substances or energy introduced into the environment by man, directly or indirectly that may result in adverse effects on life. Pollutants can be divided into various classes including organic, nutrients, oils, radioactive isotopes, heavy metals, pathogenic, sediments, garbage among others. Disposal of sewage on water bodies is an old habit of how we deal with our wastes. Consequently, great part of the aquatic environment becomes polluted in various extents. Among the organic pollutants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) represents a class of molecules consisting from two or more fused benzene rings and its by-products. Members of this class of compounds have been identified as exhibiting toxic and hazardous properties. Their toxicity is also due to its hydrophobic property that induces conformational changes on membranes, increasing their permeability. Consequently, the photosynthetic capacity of exposed organisms can be harmed, leading to serious imbalances on their electron chain transport and uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation. Anthracene (ANT) is a PAH formed by three fused benezenic rings and is one of the 16 prioritary PAH according to American and European regulatory agencies. ANT is classified as highly toxic for aquatic organisms causing long term effects on environment. Besides, ANT can be easily photooxidated and its products can be even more toxic, specially quinones, that can interfere on respiration and photosynthesis, leading to problems on algae development and ecosystem collapse caused by low biomass, oxygen deficiency and inhibition of detoxification processes. The amount of information about the effects on metabolism of the photosynthetic organisms is limited. Therefore our main goal was to use the model organism Chlamydomonas reinhardtii in order to gain insights on the toxic effects caused by ANT through GC-MS metabolomics approach. A metabolic response to ANT exposure, lipid accumulates in C. reinhardtii. Similarly to fatty acids, another marked physiological response was amino acids accumulation. With the exception of valine, all amino acids found in our GC-MS analysis showed a marked relative accumulation in cultures exposed to ANT. Another important finding was the high level of glutathione, possibly caused by ROS production. Carboxylic acids were also found in our analysis and among them a highly impacted pathway found was glyoxylate cycle. Toghether with the increase accumulation of glyoxylate, many TCA cycle intermediates, like succinate and malate were found. Furthermore, malate accumulation is dependent of glyoxylate and acetate, present in culture media. The product of this gene catalyse the reaction between glyoxylate and acetyl-CoA forming malate as a final product. Taken all together, our findings suggest that to compensate the photosynthesis inhibition, heterotrophic acetate metabolism was activated producing acetyl-CoA an important energy source, and glyoxylate cycle plays a central role during stress caused by ANT. Furthermore, incorporation of carbon through glyoxylate cycle can enable synthesis of more complex molecules like amino acids, lipids and carbohydrates.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / O pinhÃo-manso (Jatropha curcas L.) à uma planta oleaginosa, pertencente à famÃlia Euphorbiaceae, cujas sementes sÃo reconhecidas como matÃria-prima com potencial para a produÃÃo de Ãleo. Essa planta tambÃm à considerada tolerante a condiÃÃes adversas, tais como dÃficit hÃdrico e deficiÃncia nutricional do solo, o que favorece o seu cultivo em regiÃes Ãridas e semiÃridas. Objetivou-se avaliar os efeitos do estresse salino sobre a germinaÃÃo e a mobilizaÃÃo das reservas de sementes e plÃntulas de pinhÃo-manso, por meio de anÃlises bioquÃmicas, fisiolÃgicas e ultraestruturais. Os parÃmetros germinativos foram negativamente afetados pelo estresse salino, observando-se reduÃÃes significativas principalmente no percentual de germinaÃÃo e no Ãndice de velocidade de germinaÃÃo. Similarmente, a matÃria seca, avaliada no eixo embrionÃrio e no endosperma, foi reduzida pela salinidade. Com relaÃÃo aos compostos de reserva, os lipÃdios foram os mais abundantes, correspondendo a 64,0% da matÃria seca do endosperma da semente quiescente. Estes compostos apresentaram forte retardo em sua mobilizaÃÃo em condiÃÃo de estresse salino. As proteÃnas, a segunda reserva mais abundante (21,3%), tambÃm tiveram sua mobilizaÃÃo severamente afetada pelo tratamento salino. O amido foi detectado em pequena quantidade (5,5%), porÃm, verificou-se o aumento transiente de seu teor aos 5 dias apÃs a semeadura (DAS), que coincidiu com a intensa mobilizaÃÃo de lipÃdios, em condiÃÃes controle. Entretanto, em condiÃÃes de estresse salino, o amido foi pouco mobilizado. Os produtos da mobilizaÃÃo das reservas, em condiÃÃes controle, principalmente os aÃÃcares nÃo-redutores e aminoÃcidos livres aumentaram no endosperma, enquanto que, sob condiÃÃes de salinidade, eles foram pouco alterados. AlÃm disso, as anÃlises citoquÃmicas e ultraestruturais confirmaram a abundante quantidade de lipÃdios e proteÃnas, sendo detectados inÃmeros corpos proteicos e lipÃdicos no citoplasma das cÃlulas endospÃrmicas dessas sementes. A salinidade tambÃm promoveu alteraÃÃes morfolÃgicas e ultraestruturais nas cÃlulas endospÃrmicas durante a germinaÃÃo e desenvolvimento de plÃntulas. O presente estudo tambÃm avaliou o metabolismo lipÃdico atravÃs da anÃlise da composiÃÃo dos Ãcidos graxos do endosperma e da anÃlise da atividade enzimÃtica e da expressÃo gÃnica das enzimas lipase, liase do isocitrato e sintase do malato. Os Ãcidos graxos insaturados foram os mais abundantes, destacando-se o oleico e o linoleico-linolÃnico, que apresentaram incrementos em seus teores, em condiÃÃes controle, ao longo do perÃodo avaliado, porÃm, sob estresse salino foram pouco alterados. A lipase apresentou incremento na sua atividade ao longo da germinaÃÃo, que coincidiu com a intensa mobilizaÃÃo de lipÃdios observada no controle. Similarmente, a reduÃÃo dessa atividade foi correspondente ao retardo na mobilizaÃÃo dos lipÃdios em condiÃÃo de estresse salino. A atividade enzimÃtica da liase do isocitrato nÃo apresentou diferenÃas significativas entre os tratamentos atà Ãs 96 horas apÃs a semeadura (HAS), porÃm apÃs esse perÃodo, verificaram-se as maiores reduÃÃes na condiÃÃo de estresse salino, quando comparado ao controle. Jà a atividade da sintase do malato foi significativamente maior em condiÃÃes controle atà Ãs 144 HAS, entretanto, a partir desse perÃodo, essa atividade se mostrou superior em condiÃÃes salinas. Verificaram-se reduÃÃes na atividade dessas enzimas em decorrÃncia do estresse, o que teve correlaÃÃo com as mudanÃas na expressÃo dos genes da lipase e liase do isocitrato. Portanto, pode-se concluir que a salinidade contribuiu para o retardo na mobilizaÃÃo dos lipÃdios, a principal reserva encontrada nas sementes de J. curcas, o que foi correlacionado a reduÃÃo na atividade das enzimas envolvidas no seu metabolismo. / Jatropha curcas L. is an oilseed species belonged to Euphorbiaceae family, whose seeds are recognized as promising source for biodiesel production. Its ability to survive in adverse conditions, such as water stress and poor nutritional soil, is noteworthy, which favors its cultivation in arid and semiarid regions. Here we evaluate the negative effects promoted by NaCl salt stress on seed germination, reserve mobilization of J. curcas through biochemical, physiological and ultrastructural analysis. The seed germination parameters were significantly affected by salt stress, being observed that the main parameters affected were germination percentage and germination speed index. Similarly, the embryo and endosperm dry mass were reduced by Na+ and Cl- increase in the medium. Considering the reserve compounds, the most abundant reserve of these seeds were the lipids, which corresponded to 64.0% of endosperm seed quiescent dry mass. They showed a stronger delay in reserve mobilization under saline conditions. Proteins were the second most important reserve (21.3%), being severally affected by salinity. The starch was detected in little amount (5.5% of quiescent seed dry mass), however there was a transient increase in this contents at 5 DAI (days after imbibition), which was correlated to the intense lipid mobilization, in control conditions. On the other hand, in salinity, it was observed that starch mobilization was reduced. The seed reserve products (mainly non-reducing sugars and free amino acids) were increased in endosperm in control in relation to quiescent seed, during germination, whereas for salt conditions, these products were few changed. Additionally, cytochemical and ultrastructural analyses confirmed the large amount of protein and lipid bodies in endosperm cells, reaching the identification of a huge amount of protein and lipid bodies. Salt stress promoted morphological and ultrastructural changes in endospermic cells, during germination and seedling development confirming the biochemical analyses. The present study also evaluated the lipid metabolism, using the fatty acid composition analysis and enzymatic and expression genic analyses for lipase, isocitrate liase, malate sintase. The unsaturated fatty acids were the most abundant, highlighting oleic (C18:1) and linoleic-linolenic (C18:2; C18:3), showing increase in their contents, in control conditions, during the evaluated period. However, the fatty acids practically were not changed in salinity conditions. Lipase showed increase in their activity during germination, which corresponded to intense mobilization in lipids in control. In similar way, the reduction of this activity happened in salinity, correlating to lipid delay mobilization. The evident delay of protein and oil body mobilization could strongly affect initial seedling development. The liase isocitrate activity did not show significant differences between treatments until 96 hours after imbibition (HAI), however, following this period, it was verified the strongest reduction in salt stress condition. The activity of malate synthase was not significantly higher in control conditions until 144 HAI, however, following this period, this activity was higher in salinity. It were verified reductions in enzymatic activity due to salt stress, which were correlated to gene expression changes of lipase and isocitrate lyase. Therefore, salinity contributed negatively to lipid mobilization, the main reserve of J. curcas seeds, which was correlated to reduction in activity of the enzymes involved in lipid metabolism.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-07-29T15:16:38Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissert part 1 Benedito.pdf: 5001631 bytes, checksum: 7d51091e361c98586e384be80ebe9178 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-05-11 / The pathogenic fungus Paracoccidioides brasiliensis causative of Paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM), a pulmonary mycose acquired by inhalation of fungal airborne propagules, which may disseminate to several organs and tissues leading to a severe form of the disease. Adhesion and invasion to host cells are essential steps involved in the internalization and dissemination of pathogens. Inside host, P. brasiliensis use the glyoxylate cycle for intracellular survival. Here, we provide evidence that malate synthase of P. brasiliensis (PbMLS) is localized on the cell wall, and is secreted. PbMLS was overexpressed in Escherichia coli, and polyclonal antibody against this protein was obtained. By using Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy and Western blot analysis, PbMLS was detected in the cytoplasm and the cell wall of the yeast phase of P. brasiliensis of mother and bud yeast cells. PbMLSr and the respective polyclonal antibody produced against this protein inhibited the interaction of P. brasiliensis to in vitro cultured epithelial cells A549. These observations indicated that cell wall-associated MLS of P. brasiliensis could be mediating the binding of fungal cells, thus contributing to the adhesion of fungus to host tissues and to the dissemination of infection. / O fungo de patogênico Paracoccidioides brasiliensis agente causador da Paracoccidioidomicose (PCM), uma micose pulmonar adquirida pela inalação de propágulos aéreos do fungo que pode se disseminar a vários órgãos e tecidos levando a uma forma severa da doença. Dentro do hospedeiro, P. brasiliensis usa o ciclo do glioxalato (CG) para sobrevivência intracelular. Adesão e invasão das células do hospedeiro são passos essenciais envolvidos na internalização e disseminação do patógeno. Aqui, nós evidênciamos que malato sintase de P. brasiliensis (PbMLS) é secretada, e é localizada na parede da célula. PbMLS foi superexpressa em Escherichia coli, e o anticorpo policlonal contra esta proteína foi obtido. Usando Microscopia Laser Confocal (CLSM) e análise de Western blot, PbMLS foi encontrada no citoplasma e na parede da célula na fase leveduriforme de P. brasiliensis nas células mãe e broto. PbMLSr e o respectivo anticorpo policlonal produzido contra esta proteína inibiram a interação de P. brasiliensis com células epiteliais A549 cultivads in vitro. Estas observações indicariam que MLS associada à parede da célula de P. brasiliensis pode estar mediando a ligação do fungo às células, contribuindo assim com a adesão do fungo aos tecidos hospedeiros e para a disseminação da infecção.