Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a non-destructive electromagnetic investigative tool used in many applications across the fields of engineering and geophysics. The propagation of electromagnetic waves in lossy materials is complex and over the past 20 years, the computational modelling of GPR has developed to improve our understanding of this phenomenon. This research focuses on the development of accurate numerical models of widely-used, high-frequency commercial GPR antennas. High-frequency, highresolution GPR antennas are mainly used in civil engineering for the evaluation of structural features in concrete i. e., the location of rebars, conduits, voids and cracking. These types of target are typically located close to the surface and their responses can be coupled with the direct wave of the antenna. Most numerical simulations of GPR only include a simple excitation model, such as an infinitesimal dipole, which does not represent the actual antenna. By omitting the real antenna from the model, simulations cannot accurately replicate the amplitudes and waveshapes of real GPR responses. Numerical models of a 1.5 GHz Geophysical Survey Systems, Inc. (GSSI) antenna and a 1.2 GHz MALÅ GeoScience (MALÅ) antenna have been developed. The geometry of antennas is often complex with many fine features that must be captured in the numerical models. To visualise this level of detail in 3d, software was developed to link Paraview—an open source visualisation application which uses the Visualisation Toolkit (VTK)—with GprMax3D—electromagnetic simulation software based on the Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method. Certain component values from the real antennas that were required for the models could not be readily determined due to commercial sensitivity. Values for these unknown parameters were found by implementing an optimisation technique known as Taguchi’s method. The metric used to initially assess the accuracy of the antenna models was a cross-corellation of the crosstalk responses from the models with the crosstalk responses measured from the real antennas. A 98 % match between modelled and real crosstalk responses was achieved. Further validation of the antenna models was undertaken using a series of laboratory experiments where oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions were created to simulate the electrical properties of real materials. The emulsions provided homogeneous liquids with controllable permittivity and conductivity and enabled different types of targets, typically encountered with GPR, to be tested. The laboratory setup was replicated in simulations which included the antenna models and an excellent agreement was shown between the measured and modelled data. The models reproduced both the amplitude and waveshape of the real responses whilst B-scans showed that the models were also accurately capturing effects, such as masking, present in the real data. It was shown that to achieve this accuracy, the real permittivity and conductivity profiles of materials must be correctly modelled. The validated antenna models were then used to investigate the radiation dynamics of GPR antennas. It was found that the shape and directivity of theoretically predicted far-field radiation patterns differ significantly from real antenna patterns. Being able to understand and visualise in 3d the antenna patterns of real GPR antennas, over realistic materials containing typical targets, is extremely important for antenna design and also from a practical user perspective.

Dating back to as far as 1940, the US road and bridge infrastructure system has garnered quite the status for strategically connecting together half a continent. As monumental as the infrastructure's status, is its rate of deterioration, with the average bridge age coming at a disconcerting 50 years. Aside from visual inspection, a battery of non-destructive tests were developed to conduct structural fault assessment and detect laminations, in order to preemptively take preventive measures. The mainstream commercially favored test is the impulse time domain ground penetrating radar (GPR). An extremely short, high voltage pulse is used to visualize cross-sections of the bridge decks. While effective and it does not disturb traffic flow, impulse radar suffers from major drawbacks. The drawbacks are namely, its limited dynamic range and high cost of system manufacturing. A less prominent yet highly effective system, stepped frequency continuous wave (SFCW) GPR, was developed to address the aforementioned drawbacks. Mostly developed for research centers and academia, SFCW boasts a high dynamic range and low cost of system manufacturing, while producing comparable if not identical results to the impulse counterpart. However, data procurement speed is an inherent problem in SFCW GPR, which seems to keep impulse radar in the lead for production and development. I am proposing a novel approach to elevate SFCW's data acquisition speed and its scanning efficiency altogether. This approach combines an encoding method called orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) and an emerging paradigm called compressive sensing (CS). In OFDM, a digital data stream, the transmit signal, is encoded on multiple carrier frequencies. These frequencies are combined in such a way to achieve orthogonality between the carrier frequencies, while mitigating any interference between said frequencies. In CS, a signal can be potentially reconstructed from a few samples below the standardized Nyquist rate. A novel design of the SFCW GPR architecture coupled with the OFDM-CS algorithm is proposed and evaluated using ideal channels and realistically modelled bridge decks.

Milhares de cones siliciosos foram mapeados próximo de Anhembi, estado de São Paulo, e sugere tratar-se do mais importante registro geológico resultante de uma intensa atividade hidrotermal ocorrida no Período Permiano. Essa ocorrência é única no mundo devido à grande quantidade de cones silicosos e sua distribuição em pequena área. Na realidade, esses cones siliciosos foram classificados como geiseritos, registrando a existência de gêiseres no final do Permiano. Os geiseritos encontrados em Anhembi desenvolveram-se simultaneamente à sedimentação do siltitos e arenitos da Formação Teresina. Os cones encontram-se bem preservados, pois estão sendo exumados pela erosão moderna. No entanto, há indícios da presença de corpos ainda soterrados nos sedimentos da Formação Teresina. A fim de identifica-los foi usado os métodos geofísicos do georradar e da resistividade para mapeamento de subsuperfície. Os resultados mostram que há corpos enterrados até seis metros de profundidade nas localidades em que os geiseritos encontram-se exumados. Portanto, o campo de ocorrência desses cones é maior que o inicialmente conhecido pelas evidências em superfície. / Thousands of siliceous mounds have been found near to Anhembi, state of São Paulo, which are supposed to be the geological record of a huge hydrothermal activity of Late Permian. This occurrence is unique in the world due to the number of siliceous mounds and its distribution in a small area. Actually, these siliceous mounds are nominated geyserites since they record the existence of geysers at Late Permian. Geyserites found in Anhembi developed simultaneously with sedimentation of siltstones and sandstones of the Teresina Formation. These geyserites are being exhumed by modern erosion and this is the reason they are well preserved. However, it´s presumed there are a lot of buried geyserites still within sediments of the Teresina Formation. In order to identify them we used GPR - ground penetrating radar - and resistivity to subsurface mapping. Results show buried geyserites four meters below the ground surface where exhumed geyserites are found. Therefore, this geyserite field is much bigger than it is supposed to be just seeing on the ground surface.

Milhares de cones siliciosos foram mapeados próximo de Anhembi, estado de São Paulo, e sugere tratar-se do mais importante registro geológico resultante de uma intensa atividade hidrotermal ocorrida no Período Permiano. Essa ocorrência é única no mundo devido à grande quantidade de cones silicosos e sua distribuição em pequena área. Na realidade, esses cones siliciosos foram classificados como geiseritos, registrando a existência de gêiseres no final do Permiano. Os geiseritos encontrados em Anhembi desenvolveram-se simultaneamente à sedimentação do siltitos e arenitos da Formação Teresina. Os cones encontram-se bem preservados, pois estão sendo exumados pela erosão moderna. No entanto, há indícios da presença de corpos ainda soterrados nos sedimentos da Formação Teresina. A fim de identifica-los foi usado os métodos geofísicos do georradar e da resistividade para mapeamento de subsuperfície. Os resultados mostram que há corpos enterrados até seis metros de profundidade nas localidades em que os geiseritos encontram-se exumados. Portanto, o campo de ocorrência desses cones é maior que o inicialmente conhecido pelas evidências em superfície. / Thousands of siliceous mounds have been found near to Anhembi, state of São Paulo, which are supposed to be the geological record of a huge hydrothermal activity of Late Permian. This occurrence is unique in the world due to the number of siliceous mounds and its distribution in a small area. Actually, these siliceous mounds are nominated geyserites since they record the existence of geysers at Late Permian. Geyserites found in Anhembi developed simultaneously with sedimentation of siltstones and sandstones of the Teresina Formation. These geyserites are being exhumed by modern erosion and this is the reason they are well preserved. However, it´s presumed there are a lot of buried geyserites still within sediments of the Teresina Formation. In order to identify them we used GPR - ground penetrating radar - and resistivity to subsurface mapping. Results show buried geyserites four meters below the ground surface where exhumed geyserites are found. Therefore, this geyserite field is much bigger than it is supposed to be just seeing on the ground surface.

Na barreira regressiva da Pinheira, são reconhecidos quatro ambientes deposicionais costeiros, caracterizados por parâmetros geológicos como a análise de litofácies, estruturas sedimentares, grau de compactação e conteúdo de moluscos. Informações que são analisadas em conjunto com imagens de dados geofísicos obtidas com o método do Radar de Penetração no Solo (GPR – Ground Penetrating Radar) para determinar esses ambientes. O presente trabalho visa a caracterização destes ambientes deposicionais através da análise da amplitude do sinal em traços de antenas com frequências centrais de 80, 100, 200 e 400 MHz em conjunto com os dados de compactação e litológicos de um furo de sondagem. E também mostra o comportamento da atenuação do sinal em relação a umidade presente no ambiente. A análise dos traços permitiu a identificação dos contatos entre os ambientes já descritos para barreiras regressivas, mostrando variação no valor das amplitudes (decréscimo ou aumento) em conjunto com a variação no grau de compactação, que evidenciam em subsuperfície a mudança entre os ambientes de cordões litorâneos, backshore/foreshore e shoreface superior e inferior. A interferência da umidade na atenuação do sinal nos dados analisados pode ser observada apenas nos primeiros 0,5 m. Demonstrando que a pluviosidade não é um fator de relevância para atenuação do sinal em ambientes arenosos onde o nível da água é próximo a superfície. A análise dos radargramas para todas as antenas, permitiu a identificação dos padrões de refletores já descritos para os ambientes da área de estudo e a antena com frequência central de 200 MHz apresentou maior resolução para a definição de todos os ambientes. / In the Pinheira regressive barrier, four coastal depositional environments are recognized, characterized by geological parameters such as lithofacies analysis, sedimentary structures, compaction degree and set of mollusks. Information that is analyzed together with images of geophysical data obtained with the Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) method to determine these environments. The present work aims to characterize these depositional environments by analyzing the signal amplitude in traces with central frequencies antennas of 80, 100, 200 and 400 MHz in conjunction with the compaction and lithological data of a drill hole. It also shows the behavior of signal attenuation in relation to the humidity present in the environment. The analysis of the traces allowed the identification of the contacts between the environments already described for regressive barriers, showing variation in the value of the amplitudes (decrease or increase), together with the variation in the degree of compaction, which evidences in subsurface the change between the environments of foredune ridges, backshore/foreshore and upper and lower shoreface. The interference of humidity in attenuation of the signal in the studied data can be observed only in the first 0.5 m. Rainfall was not relevant for signal attenuation in the studied sandy deposits with water level close to the surface. The analysis of the radargrams for all the antennas allowed the identification of the patterns of reflectors already described for the environments of the study area and the central frequency antenna of 200 MHz showed the highest resolution for the definition of all the environments.

Tese de mestrado integrado. Engenharia Electrotécnica e de Computadores (Área de Especialização de Energia). Faculdade de Engenharia. Universidade do Porto. 2012

Extensive overwash occurred along Florida's Atlantic and northern Gulf facing barrier islands during the passages of Hurricanes Frances, Ivan, and Jeanne in 2004. These high-energy storm events provided a unique opportunity to study the spatial depositional patterns and internal sedimentary architecture of fresh washover deposits resulting from inundation to collision regime overwash events. Sedimentological characteristics and 3-D internal architecture of the washover deposits were studied through coring, trenching, sediment analysis, ground penetrating radar (GPR) surveys, and pre- and post-storm aerial photography and LiDAR topographic survey data. The cross-shore extent of washover deposition is controlled by sediment supply, accommodation space, and the extent of cross-shore penetration of overwash flow. Antecedent morphology of the beach or barrier island is the primary factor governing sediment supply and accommodation space. Antecedent morphology coupled with spatio-temporal factors including storm position, intensity, and duration govern the extent of landward excursion of overwash flow. Washover deposition ranges from thin deposits, limited in cross-shore extent to the beach berm, to extensive sheet-like sediment bodies extending across an entire barrier island profile. Four sedimentary facies are recognized, which can be related to antecedent morphology. Berm facies, dominates the beach and seaward side of the foredune, and is characterized by a basal erosional surface and seaward dipping planar stratification. Back-berm facies extends landward from the dune crest down the backside of the foredune, exhibits little evidence of erosion along the basal contact, and is dominated by landward inclined stratification. Platform facies, largely confined to the interior platform, exhibits little evidence of erosion along the pre-storm surface, and horizontal to gently landward dipping parallel stratification, which merges landward with, and commonly overlies steeply landward dipping foreset stratification. Antecedent hummocky dunes may be preserved within platform facies. The landward most facies, backbay facies is dominated by subaqueous deposition within the back bay, and is characterized by steeply landward dipping tabular foreset and sigmoidal stratification. In the longshore direction, backbay facies exhibit trough and mound GPR reflective patterns, representing washover sediment ridges and troughs oriented parallel to the primary flow direction, and illustrate the highly 3-dimesional nature of the washover deposits.

L'évaluation de la stabilité des falaises est complexe, du fait de l'incertitude des mécanismes de rupture et de la méconnaissance de l'état de fracturation interne du massif. Les méthodes géophysiques permettent d'obtenir de l'information sur la structure interne du massif. Le radar géologique a montré son efficacité pour détecter et caractériser les fractures. Plusieurs profils radar (réflexion, transmission, CMP) sont testés sur deux falaises verticales calcaires proches de Grenoble. La combinaison de profils verticaux et horizontaux permet de mieux contraindre la géométrie 3D du réseau de fractures. Les analyses de vitesses radar, déduites des acquisitions CMP, permettent de caractériser directement les larges fractures ouverture en profondeur. La tomographie radar fournit une image 2D de l'intérieur du massif, mais avec une trop faible résolution. Dans une gamme de fréquences donnée, la détection de fractures par le radar va dépendre de l'ouverture et du remplissage, qui contrôlent le coefficient de réflexion. Une stratégie de caractérisation des fractures est proposée en utilisant la sensibilité fréquentielle de la réflectivité. L'inversion des coefficients de réflexion radar, basée sur un algorithme de voisinage, permet de retrouver les paramètres caractéristiques des fractures modélisées. La méthode du rapport spectral entre un signal réfléchi (mesuré) et un signal de référence (connu), permet de calculer facilement le coefficient de réflexion. Une étude numérique 2D (FDTD) est menée pour le choix du signal de référence. L'inversion des coefficients de réflexion radar synthétiques est testée pour une configuration de fracture ouverte rencontrée sur le terrain.

The knowledge of the dynamics of soil water is essential in agricultural, hydrological and environmental engineering as it controls plant growth, key hydrological processes, and the contamination of surface and subsurface water. Nearby remote sensing can be used for characterizing non-destructively the hydrogeophysical properties of the subsurface. In that respect, ground penetrating radar (GPR) constitutes a promising high resolution characterization tool. However, notwithstanding considerable research has been devoted to GPR, its use for assessing quantitatively the subsurface properties is constrained by the lack of appropriate GPR systems and signal analysis methods. In this study, a new integrated approach is developed to identify from GPR measurements the soil water content and hydraulic properties governing water transfer in the subsurface. It is based on hydrodynamic and electromagnetic inverse modeling. Research on GPR has focused on GPR design, forward modeling of GPR signal, and electromagnetic inversion to estimate simultaneously the depth dependent dielectric constant and electric conductivity of the shallow subsurface, which are correlated to water content and water quality. The method relies on an ultrawide band stepped frequency continuous wave radar combined with an off-ground monostatic TEM horn antenna. This radar configuration offers possibilities for real time mapping and allows for a more realistic forward modeling of the radar-antenna-subsurface system. Forward modeling is based on the exact solution of Maxwell's equations for a stratified medium. The forward model consists in elementary linear components which are linked in series and parallel. The GPR approach is validated for simple laboratory and outdoor conditions. GPR signal inversion enables the monitoring of the soil water dynamics, which can be subsequently inverted for estimating the soil hydraulic properties. A specifically designed hydrodynamic inverse modeling procedure which requires only water content data as input is further developed and validated to obtain the soil hydraulic properties under laboratory conditions.

The presence of fractures, joints and karst features within rock strongly influence the hydraulic and mechanical behavior of a rock mass, and there is a strong desire to characterize these features in a noninvasive manner, such as by using ground penetrating radar (GPR). These features can alter the incident waveform and polarization of the GPR signal depending on the aperture, fill and orientation of the features. The GPR methods developed here focus on changes in waveform, polarization or texture that can improve the detection and discrimination of these features within rock bodies. These new methods are utilized to better understand the interaction of an invasive shrub, Juniperus ashei, with subsurface flow conduits at an ecohydrologic experimentation plot situated on the limestone of the Edwards Aquifer, central Texas. First, a coherency algorithm is developed for polarimetric GPR that uses the largest eigenvalue of a scattering matrix in the calculation of coherence. This coherency is sensitive to waveshape and unbiased by the polarization of the GPR antennas, and it shows improvement over scalar coherency in detection of possible conduits in the plot data. Second, a method is described for full-waveform inversion of transmission data to quantitatively determine fracture aperture and electromagnetic properties of the fill, based on a thin-layer model. This inversion method is validated on synthetic data, and the results from field data at the experimentation plot show consistency with the reflection data. Finally, growing hierarchical self-organizing maps (GHSOM) are applied to the GPR data to discover new patterns indicative of subsurface features, without representative examples. The GHSOMs are able to distinguish patterns indicating soil filled cavities within the limestone. Using these methods, locations of soil filled cavities and the dominant flow conduits were indentified. This information helps to reconcile previous hydrologic experiments conducted at the site. Additionally, the GPR and hydrologic experiments suggests that Juniperus ashei significantly impacts infiltration by redirecting flow towards its roots occupying conduits and soil bodies within the rock. This research demonstrates that GPR provides a noninvasive tool that can improve future subsurface experimentation.