Thesis (MScEng (Electrical and Electronic Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis presents an attempt at creating a fully functional SQUID for the purposes of a predefined application. The goal of the work is to provide a method of development, primarily utilising the facilities of the Engineering Faculty of the University of Stellenbosch, with minimal assistance from other departments. This method is then analysed and the successes and failures discussed in order to provide guidelines and recommendations for future research. The device consists of a gradiometric SQUID, as well as electronics which provide the SQUID bias current, output linearisation and output signal filtering. YBCO is used for the superconducting material, allowing the use of liquid nitrogen as coolant which eases the operation and portability of the device. Various methods of creating Josephson junctions are tested, such as constriction bridges using AFM lithography and step-edge junctions, with and without different buffer layers. Proof of concept simulations demonstrate the viability of the device. Unfortunately, a functional device could not be constructed, mostly due to the design requiring higher levels of resolution and process control than some of the available facilities can provide. Recommendations are provided for future researchers. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie tesis beskryf ’n poging om ’n volledige funksionele SQUID te vervaardig vir die doeleindes van ’n vasgestelde toepassing. Die doel van die werk is om ’n metode te voorsien wat hoofsaaklik gebruik maak van die fasiliteite van die Ingenieurswese Fakulteit van die Universiteit van Stellenbosch, met minimale hulp van ander departemente. Hierdie metode word dan ondersoek en die suksesse en mislukkings bespreek om riglyne en voorstellings te voorsien vir toekomstige navorsing. Die toestel bestaan uit ’n gradiometriese SQUID, sowel as elektronika wat voorsiening maak vir voorspanning, uittree-linearisering en ’n uittree-filter. YBCO is as supergeleidende materiaal gebruik, wat die gebruik van vloeibare stikstof as verkoeler moontlik maak en dus die hantering en draagbaarheid van die toestel vergemaklik. Verskillende metodes om Josephson-vlakke te vervaardig is getoets, onder andere vernouingsbrugvlakke deur middel van AFM litografie en stapvlakke met en sonder bufferlae. Bewys van konsep simulasies demonstreer die lewensvatbaarheid van die toestel. Ongelukkig kon ’n funksionele weergawe van die toestel nie vervaardig word nie, hoofsaaklik as gevolg van die ontwerp wat hoër resolusievlakke en beter prosesbeheer benodig as wat sekere van die beskikbare fasiliteite kan voorsien. Aanbevelings word voorsien vir toekomstige navorsers.

[Truncated abstract] Magnetic gradiometers are powerful tools for mineral exploration. The magnetic field contains valuable information about the mineral content of the surveyed terrain. The magnetic gradient specifies the amount of spatial variation in the direction and magnitude of the magnetic field. Surveys that measure the magnetic gradient provide vastly more information about geological targets than the magnetic field alone. This technology could have enormous benefits in terms of new discoveries and lower exploration costs. The magnetic gradient is normally calculated by subtracting the outputs of two total field magnetometers which are separated by a baseline. In 1997, a direct string magnetic gradiometer (DSMG) was developed that directly measures magnetic gradients using only a single string as its sensing element. This thesis describes research conducted to improve the sensitivity and performance of the DSMG. The main advantage of the DSMG is that only gradients can induce second harmonic vibrations in the string. Thus, the DSMG is insensitive to uniform magnetic fields that we are not interested in, such as the global magnetic field of the Earth. By using inductive electronics to measure second harmonic string vibrations, we can select to measure the magnetic gradient of nearby targets. Recent work has shown that a magnetic gradiometer with a noise floor of 0.01 nT/m/ v Hz should be sufficiently sensitive for geophysical exploration. In order to reach this goal, this thesis presents an investigation of all noise sources affecting the DSMG. ... Gas damping is negligible in high vacuum and no vibration isolation is required. This means that longer strings with low resonant frequencies can be used. Using theoretical modelling, I show that a space borne DSMG should be able to match the white noise level of SQuID based magnetic gradiometers and have a lower 1/f noise corner. Deployment in space could be the most viable application of the DSMG because of the ease of operation and enhancement of sensitivity. If the thermal noise level is reduced then other sources of noise will start to become more important. When rotated in the Earth's magnetic field, the DSMG detects a pseudo magnetic gradient despite the field being almost uniform. A possible cause is magnetically susceptible parts which are magnetically aligning with the Earth's field. I have conducted a thorough investigation of magnetic susceptible parts in the DSMG and reported the results in this thesis. In the DSMG, a pair of inductive pickup coils are used to measure the string's displacement with a root mean square accuracy of 1011 m/ v Hz. This is adequate at present but the inductive electronics may not be sensitive enough after other improvements in the DSMG are implemented. Here, I present a new capacitive displacement readout with a high sensitivity of 1013 m/ v Hz. The thesis also presents some magnetic gradient measurements in the lab and the results of a ground survey in the field. These trial measurements are used to characterise the DSMG and demonstrate its effectiveness for airborne surveying.

No / Although military sites have long been the subject of geophysical investigation, those associated with recent military campaigns are noticeably rare. In fact, although such techniques are increasingly used to identify the unwanted legacy of modern warfare, such as unexploded ordnances or mass burials, they have not been used to investigate the archaeology of such conflict. The survey here attempts to identify the archaeology of one military site (Puits d'Herode) that was part of Hitler's Atlantic Wall and to identify the key elements associated with its D-Day defences. Magnetic gradiometry, twin-probe resistance and ground-penetrating radar were used at this site and, as a result of the nature of the buried archaeology, the magnetic technique proved most valuable. Trenches and bunkers previously known from aerial photographs were located accurately and a track believed to relate to the post-D-Day advance of the Allied forces across Puits d'Herode was also identified. The use of geophysical data in the investigation of this site has provided a new avenue to examine previously difficult topics such as the quality of intelligence available at the time of the conflict and the level and accuracy of shelling; although these may seem unlikely targets for archaeological geophysics, they are important to military historians for whom eye witness accounts are becoming increasingly scarce.

Magnetisch-induktive Techniken finden seit langer Zeit viele Anwendungsfelder in der Medizin, Sicherheitstechnik und der Industrie. Obwohl die technischen Grundlagen seit vielen Jahrzehnten bekannt sind, werden auf Basis detaillierter Analysen spezielle Lösungsansätze verfolgt, die neuartiges Anwendungspotential erschließen sollen. Dazu dienen verbesserte Werkzeuge wie Computersimulationen und analytische Berechnungen sowie neu kombinierte Methoden und Aufbauten aus Leistungselektronik und Signaldetektion. Die Vorteile magnetisch-induktiver Techniken sind dabei u.a., dass sie das Prüfobjekt nicht schädigen, berührungslos arbeiten, robust gegenüber Verschmutzungen und einfach im Aufbau sind. Ein Nachteil dieser Technik ist die unzureichende Auflösung von feinen Strukturen. In der aktuellen Forschung und Entwicklung werden unterschiedliche Spulenanordnungen zur Anwendung in industriellen und medizinischen Fragestellungen untersucht und optimiert. Thema dieser Arbeit ist es, durch Verbesserung der Spuleneigenschaften, neue Anwendungsbereiche für die zerstörungsfreie Materialprüfung zu erschließen. Es wird eine Methode vorgestellt, die Eigenschaften magnetisch-induktiver Tastspulen zu verbessern und so den Aufwand bei der Signalverarbeitung zur Rekonstruktion im Rechner zu reduzieren sowie die Auflösung zu erhöhen. Dazu werden zwei Spulenanordnungen, Transmissions - Tastspulen und Gradiometer - Tastspulen, vergleichend gegenübergestellt und ihre technischen Grenzen aufgezeigt. / Magneto-inductive techniques are found in many fields of application areas so in medicine, security technology and industry. Although the technical basis has been known for many decades, special solutions are pursued on the basis of detailed analysis that should open new application potential. These are enhanced tools such as computer simulations, analytical calculations, new combined methods and structures of power electronics and signal detection. The advantages of magneto-inductive techniques are that they do not damage the test object, are contactless, robust against dirt and simple in construction. A disadvantage of this technique is the insufficient resolution of fine structures. In current research and development different coil assemblies are investigated in industrial and medical applications. The aim of this work is to improve the coil properties by changing geometric constructions and current patterns of the coils, in order to allow a sharper localization of objects in space and to tap new application areas for non-destructive testing. A method to improve the properties of magneto-inductive coils and thus to reduce the effort in signal processing and image reconstruction as well as to increase the resolution is presented. Two different coil assemblies, gradiometer – coils and transmission – coils, are compared and their technical limits shown.

Magnetisch-induktive Techniken finden seit langer Zeit viele Anwendungsfelder in der Medizin, Sicherheitstechnik und der Industrie. Obwohl die technischen Grundlagen seit vielen Jahrzehnten bekannt sind, werden auf Basis detaillierter Analysen spezielle Lösungsansätze verfolgt, die neuartiges Anwendungspotential erschließen sollen. Dazu dienen verbesserte Werkzeuge wie Computersimulationen und analytische Berechnungen sowie neu kombinierte Methoden und Aufbauten aus Leistungselektronik und Signaldetektion. Die Vorteile magnetisch-induktiver Techniken sind dabei u.a., dass sie das Prüfobjekt nicht schädigen, berührungslos arbeiten, robust gegenüber Verschmutzungen und einfach im Aufbau sind. Ein Nachteil dieser Technik ist die unzureichende Auflösung von feinen Strukturen. In der aktuellen Forschung und Entwicklung werden unterschiedliche Spulenanordnungen zur Anwendung in industriellen und medizinischen Fragestellungen untersucht und optimiert. Thema dieser Arbeit ist es, durch Verbesserung der Spuleneigenschaften, neue Anwendungsbereiche für die zerstörungsfreie Materialprüfung zu erschließen. Es wird eine Methode vorgestellt, die Eigenschaften magnetisch-induktiver Tastspulen zu verbessern und so den Aufwand bei der Signalverarbeitung zur Rekonstruktion im Rechner zu reduzieren sowie die Auflösung zu erhöhen. Dazu werden zwei Spulenanordnungen, Transmissions - Tastspulen und Gradiometer - Tastspulen, vergleichend gegenübergestellt und ihre technischen Grenzen aufgezeigt. / Magneto-inductive techniques are found in many fields of application areas so in medicine, security technology and industry. Although the technical basis has been known for many decades, special solutions are pursued on the basis of detailed analysis that should open new application potential. These are enhanced tools such as computer simulations, analytical calculations, new combined methods and structures of power electronics and signal detection. The advantages of magneto-inductive techniques are that they do not damage the test object, are contactless, robust against dirt and simple in construction. A disadvantage of this technique is the insufficient resolution of fine structures. In current research and development different coil assemblies are investigated in industrial and medical applications. The aim of this work is to improve the coil properties by changing geometric constructions and current patterns of the coils, in order to allow a sharper localization of objects in space and to tap new application areas for non-destructive testing. A method to improve the properties of magneto-inductive coils and thus to reduce the effort in signal processing and image reconstruction as well as to increase the resolution is presented. Two different coil assemblies, gradiometer – coils and transmission – coils, are compared and their technical limits shown.

Dans cette thèse, nous présentons la conception et les performances de capteurs magnétiques basés sur les technologies AMR et GMR en vue d'une utilisation dans la navigation. Afin d'obtenir une sensibilité et une linéarité optimales à champ nul, le design des capteurs utilise des barberpoles et un pont de wheatstone pour l'un et prend avantage des différentes anisotropies et couplages pour l'autre. Les capteurs sont fabriqués par pulvérisations cathodiques et photolithographies et leurs performances en terme de sensibilité, de linéarité et de bruit sont testées et comparées. La conception de gradiomètres nécessaires à la navigation magnéto-inertielle repose sur l'utilisation de magnétorésistances placées aux extrémités du capteur reliées par un pont de WheatStone dont la sortie est proportionnelle au gradient du champ magnétique. Des concentrateurs de Flux destinés à amplifier le champ afin d'améliorer la sensibilité sont conçus et testés sur les capteurs. Un concentrateur de flux destiné à amplifier un champ ayant la forme du gradient est proposé comme amélioration des gradiomètres. Des solutions innovantes pour le swithching d'anisotropie et la compensation d'offset utilisant l'effet Hall de spin et le couplage spin-transfer sont étudiées. Dans cette optique, un dispositif de mesure du couplage spin-transfer appelé spin-torque-bridge est conçu et utilisé pour étudier l'effet Hall de spin et le spin transfer dans différentes multi-couches. / In this work, we present the conception and the performances of AMR and GMR-based sensors for navigation applications In order to obtain the best sensitivity and linearity at zero field, the design include barberpoles and a Wheatstone bridge for the first and takes advantage of the different anisotropies and coupling for the other. The sensor are fabricated by magnetron sputtering and photolithography and their performances in terms of sensitivity, linearity and noise are compared. The concept of gradiometers used for magneto-inertial navigation is based on the utilisation of magnetoresistances placed at each extremity of the sensor connected by a wheatstone bridge whose output is proportional to the gradient of the magnetic field. Flux concentrators designed to amplify the incoming field in order to improve the sensitivity are fabricated and tested on the sensors. A flux concentrator designed to amplify a magnetic gradient is proposed as an improvement of the gradiometers. Innovant solutions for low consumption anisotropy switching and offset compensation are being experimented using spin Hall effect and spin transfer torque with adjacent Pt and AuW layers. In that regard a spin torque measurement device: the spin-torque-bridge, is designed and used to study the spin hall effect and the spin transfer couplings in different multi layers.

[pt] Esta Tese tem por objetivo o desenvolvimento de um sistema destinado à medição de campo magnético com alta sensibilidade e resolução, baseado nas características de fase da impedância em sensores que apresentam o efeito GMI, e a otimização das características de desempenho por meio do uso de configurações em malha fechada. A metodologia empregada inicia com a avaliação experimental das características de fase da impedância de amostras de diferente estrutura e composição química, em função do campo magnético externo, a fim de selecionar aquelas com alta sensibilidade, baixa histerese e maior homogeneidade. Na sequência, são realizadas avaliações teórico-computacionais dos transdutores magnéticos em malha aberta e fechada (magnetômetro e gradiômetro). Da mesma forma, as principais características dos circuitos e controladores software dos transdutores desenvolvidos são detalhadas ao longo do texto. Por sua vez, as principais figuras de mérito dos protótipos desenvolvidos são detalhadamente analisadas, tais como: sensibilidade, linearidade, resposta em frequência, densidade espectral de ruído e resolução. As caracterizações e ensaios experimentais realizados evidenciaram o grande potencial dos transdutores GMI em malha fechada para a atenuação da interferência 1/f, aprimoramento da linearidade e ampliação da faixa de operação. O magnetômetro GMI em malha fechada apresentou sensibilidade em torno de 75,8 mV/microteslas, fundo de escala maior que mais ou menos 40 microteslas, banda de passagem de 45 Hz e resolução na banda de passagem de 27,74 nT. Por outro lado, o gradiômetro GMI em malha fechada desenvolvido apresentou sensibilidade em torno de 102 mV/microteslas, fundo de escala maior que mais ou menos 40 microteslas, banda de passagem de 30 Hz e resolução na banda de passagem de 28,41 nT. / [en] This Thesis aims to develop a system for magnetic field measurement with high sensitivity and resolution, based on the impedance phase characteristics of sensors that have the GMI effect and the performance characteristics optimization through closed-loop configurations. The methodology starts with the experimental evaluation of the phase characteristics of the impedance in samples of different chemical composition and structure as a function of the external magnetic field in order to select those with high sensitivity, low hysteresis, and higher homogeneity. Subsequently, theoretical-computational assessments of magnetic transducers in open and closed-loop (magnetometer and gradiometer) are carried out. Likewise, the main characteristics of the circuits and software controllers of the developed transducers are detailed throughout the text. In turn, the main figures of merit of the developed prototypes are analyzed in detail, such as sensitivity, linearity, frequency response, noise spectral density, and resolution. The characterizations and experimental tests carried out showed the great potential of GMI transducers in a closed-loop configuration for attenuation of interference 1/f, improving linearity and expanding the operating range. The closed-loop GMI magnetometer showed a sensitivity of around 75.8 mV/microteslas, a full-scale range greater than plus or minus 40 microteslas, a pass band of 45 Hz and a resolution in the pass band of 27.74 nT. On the other hand, the GMI closed-loop gradiometer developed had a sensitivity of around 102 mV/microteslas, a full scale greater than plus or minus 40 microteslas, a passband of 30 Hz and a resolution in the pass band of 28.41 nT.

No description available.

[pt] Projéteis de chumbo (não-ferromagnéticos) são corpos estranhos comuns na prática médica. Métodos convencionais de localização utilizam radiações ionizantes, impondo riscos à saúde e procedimentos que duram várias horas e tipicamente terminam malsucedidos. Mapas de campos magnéticos obtidos não-invasivamente e inocuamente com SQUIDs beneficiam a localização de agulhas metálicas ferromagnéticas, reduzindo o tempo de remoção bem-sucedida de 6 horas para 10 minutos. SQUIDs são os magnetômetros mais sensíveis, entretanto requerem temperaturas criogênicas, levando a altos custos e baixa portabilidade que impedem a difusão do uso clínico. O objetivo é desenvolver um dispositivo para localizar corpos estranhos metálicos não-ferromagnéticos visando remoção cirúrgica, respeitando requerimentos de projeto: alta sensibilidade, inocuidade, não-invasividade, baixo custo, segurança, portabilidade, facilidade de uso e operação em temperatura ambiente. Sensores GMR e GMI são considerados alternativas mais adequadas. Modelos teóricos de eletrodinâmica clássica aplicados às correntes parasitas servem como base. Dois sistemas eletrônicos são desenvolvidos em configuração gradiométrica para remover interferência ambiente, usando elementos sensores GMR e GMI disponíveis comercialmente. O desempenho é obtido com resultados de simulações, provando a capacidade de detecção de níveis esperados de densidade de fluxo magnético para certos raios de projéteis e distâncias. O Sistema GMI é mais qualificado, sua mais alta sensibilidade e melhor resolução favorecem maiores faixas de medição, inocuidade, segurança e facilidade de uso. Os resultados demonstram a viabilidade dos elementos sensores GMI nessa aplicação. Os benefícios de baixo custo, maior portabilidade e segurança facilitam a utilização clínica de técnicas de localização para corpos estranhos metálicos não-ferromagnéticos mais inócuas e efetivas. / [en] Lead projectiles (non-ferromagnetic) are common foreign bodies in the medical practice. Conventional means of location use ionizing radiation, pose health risks and lead to procedures that last several hours, typically ending unsuccessfully. Magnetic field maps obtained non-invasively and innocuously with SQUIDs benefit the location of ferromagnetic metallic needles, reducing the time of successful removal from 6 hours to 10 minutes. SQUIDs are currently the most sensitive magnetometers, however require cryogenic temperatures, leading to high cost and low portability which prevent widespread clinical use. The objective is to design a device for locating non-ferromagnetic metallic foreign bodies for surgical removal, respecting project requirements of: high sensitivity, innocuousness, non-invasiveness, low cost, safety, portability, ease of use and room temperature operation. GMR and GMI sensors are considered as more suitable alternatives. Classical electrodynamics theoretical models applied to eddy currents induction serve as framework. Two electronic location systems are developed in gradiometric configuration to remove environmental interference, using commercially available GMR and GMI sensor elements. System performance is obtained from simulation results, demonstrating the capability of detecting the magnetic flux density levels expected under certain projectile radii and distances. The GMI system is more qualified, as its higher sensitivity and improved resolution favors larger measurement ranges, innocuousness, safety and ease of use. The results prove the viability of using GMI sensor elements in this application. The benefits of lower cost, higher portability and safety facilitate the clinical use of more innocuous and effective location techniques for non-ferromagnetic metallic foreign bodies.