In this study, parameters related to material properties, geometry, and external stimuli were examined individually to determine their influence on multi-story, partially grouted, perforated (openings), masonry shear walls using a finite element software FormWorks. The parameters studied were: the strength of grouted masonry prisms f<&trade>m,grouted; the strength of un-grouted (hollow) masonry prisms f<&trade>m,ungrouted; the ratio of mortar shear strength to masonry compressive strength; vertical and horizontal reinforcement ratios in terms of size and spacing of reinforcement; axial load; aspect ratio; and openings that were vertically and horizontally altered. To perform this study, finite element models were validated against the response of three experimental walls of two unique types that were built ½ scale and tested in a lab. The validated finite element models were designated as œbase models which accurately predicted the maximum strength of each wall within a tolerance of 5.9%, 3.3%, and 1.8%. Following validation, each parameter in question was varied individually to identify and quantify the sensitivity of the parameter and to observe the changes in shear capacity and deflection for this unique configuration of masonry shear walls. To capture the impact of these parameters, 38 different shear wall models were built and tested. The results were compared against the Masonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC) (2013) code predictions using the applicable shear strength equations. Results of this study are specific to cantilever type masonry shear walls with large aspect ratios and openings in every story. Shear wall capacity was considered sensitive to the following parameters: compressive strength of grouted masonry; compressive strength of un-grouted masonry; joint strength ratio; vertical reinforcement ratio; axial stress; aspect ratio; and opening width. Shear wall capacity was considered not sensitive to the following parameters: horizontal reinforcement ratio; vertical reinforcement spacing; and horizontal reinforcement spacing. The sensitivity of shear wall capacity to opening height was determined inconclusive. The sensitivities were determined by fitting trend lines to the results of shear capacity vs. each parameter individually. Each MSJC (2013) code prediction un-conservatively over-predicted the shear wall capacity except one wall configuration that had a joint strength ratio of 0.045.

Intersections often experience severe rutting in the asphalt concrete layers due to slow moving, high loads, acceleration, deceleration and turning. This thesis aims to investigate the effectiveness of grouted macadam, open graded asphalt with its voids filled with cement grout, as a pavement material at intersections. This was done by investigating the properties of grouted macadam through a literature review and performing a life-cycle cost analysis comparing grouted macadam and asphalt concrete as pavement materials at an intersection. Grouted macadam is found to be similar to asphalt concrete concerning the relation between stiffness and temperature and frequency as well as fatigue behaviour. The main differences are that grouted macadam is stiffer, stronger and not prone to rutting. Thus it would be suitable to address rutting problems. The main drawbacks are that construction demands extra time and precision and that it is expensive compared to asphalt concrete. The life-cycle cost analysis showed that assuming that the grouted macadam has a service life of twenty years and rehabilitation of the asphalt concrete in the form of mill and refill takes place every fourth year the life-cycle costs are approximately the same. A sensitivity analysis was performed that showed that local variations can have large impact on the life-cycle costs. The main conclusion is that grouted macadam can be effective as a pavement material at intersections that experiences severe rutting and frequently reoccurring rehabilitations.

Reinforced concrete block shear walls (RCBSWs) are used as seismic force resisting systems in low- and medium-rise buildings. However, attributed to their nonlinear behavior and composite material nature, accurate prediction of their seismic performance relying only on mechanics is challenging. This study introduces multi-gene genetic programming (MGGP)— a class of bio-inspired artificial intelligence, to uncover the complexity of RCBSW behaviors and develop simplified procedures for predicting the full backbone curve of flexure-dominated fully grouted RCBSWs under cyclic loading. A piecewise linear backbone curve was developed using five secant stiffness expressions associated with cracking, yielding, 80% ultimate, ultimate, and 20% strength degradation (i.e., post-peak stage) derived through controlled MGGP. Based on the experimental results of large-scale cyclically loaded RCBSWs, compiled from previously reported studies, a variable selection procedure was performed to identify the most influential variable subset governing wall behaviors. Utilizing individual wall results, the MGGP stiffness expressions were first trained and tested, and their accuracy was subsequently compared to that of existing models employing various statistical measures. In addition, the predictability of the developed backbone model was assessed at the system-level against experimental results of two two-story buildings available in the literature. The outcomes obtained from this study demonstrate the power of MGGP approach in addressing the complexity of the cyclic behavior of RCBSWs at both component- and system-level—offering an efficient prediction tool that can be adopted by relevant seismic design standards pertaining to RCBSW buildings. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

No contexto do crescimento do processo construtivo em alvenaria estrutural, destaca-se o uso do bloco cerâmico consolidado com a criação de sua norma específica de projeto, execução e controle de obras, a NBR 15812, partes 1 e 2 (ABNT, 2010). Desde a difusão da alvenaria estrutural, mudanças nas técnicas construtivas vêm ocorrendo, como por exemplo, o não preenchimento das juntas verticais de assentamento dos blocos. Outra prática que tem sido utilizada é o grauteamento da alvenaria. No entanto, ainda não está estabelecido se o não preenchimento da junta vertical compromete o desempenho da alvenaria ou qual a resistência necessária ao graute para aumentar a resistência da alvenaria. Diante disto, o trabalho objetiva contribuir com o estudo do não preenchimento das juntas verticais avaliando o seu efeito na resistência à compressão e ao cisalhamento de pequenas paredes e também pesquisar a influência do graute em prismas e pequenas paredes submetidos à compressão. Com as análises dos resultados pode-se concluir que o não preenchimento das juntas verticais não exerceu influência nos valores de resistência à compressão e também nos módulos de elasticidade longitudinal das pequenas paredes ensaiadas. No entanto, influenciou significativamente os resultados do ensaio de compressão diagonal para avaliar a resistência ao cisalhamento, apesar do módulo de deformação transversal ter sido considerado equivalente. Os resultados do estudo preliminar em prismas mostraram que a média da resistência à compressão em relação à área bruta do prisma grauteado, utilizando o Graute A e o Graute C, foi equivalente à média do prisma oco. Assim, foi escolhido o Graute A para a confecção de pequenas paredes e prismas. Pode-se concluir com os resultados das pequenas paredes grauteadas que houve um aumento significativo da resistência à compressão em relação à área bruta, mas em relação à área líquida, os valores encontrados foram equivalentes às pequenas paredes ocas. Portanto o aumento na resistência à compressão na pequena parede foi proporcional ao ganho de área dado pelo grauteamento de seus vazios, diferentemente do comportamento observado nos prismas. / In the context of growth of structural masonry construction process, it highlight the use of the ceramic block consolidated with the creation of its specific standard of design, execution and control, the NBR 15812, Parts 1 and 2 (ABNT, 2010). Since the propagation of structural masonry, changes have occurred in the construction techniques, such as don\'t fill the vertical joints of the masonry wall. Another technique that has been used is the grouted masonry. However, it is not yet established if the unfilled vertical joints compromise the performance of masonry or which strength is necessary to the grout to increase the strength of the masonry. Therewith, the paper aims to contribute to the study of unfilled vertical joints by analyzing its effect on compressive strength and shear strength of small walls and also investigate the influence of grout in prisms and small walls under compression. With the analysis of the results we can conclude that do not fill the vertical joints had no influence on the values of compressive strength and elastic modulus of the small walls tested. However, it significantly affects the results of the diagonal compression test to evaluate shear strength, despite the shear elastic modulus being considered equivalent. The results of the preliminary study in prisms showed that the average of the compressive strength in relation to the gross area of the grouted prism using the Grout A and the Grout C were equivalent to the average of hollow prism. Thus, small walls and prisms with the Grout A were made. It can be concluded with the results of grouted small walls that there was a significant increase in compressive strength with respect to the gross area, but in relation to the net area, were similar to the hollow small wall. Therefore the increase in the compressive strength in a small wall is proportional to the gain of the area given by the grout, unlike the behavior observed in the prisms.

The analysis presented in this thesis provides a methodology for grouted bolts design, based on empirical and analytical methods. Hence, the main objectives of this thesis are to offer practical means for better characterisation of poor to very poor rock masses, to better predict support pressure, and to develop an elasto-plastic analytical model for design of grouted bolts in tunnels excavated in such rock masses. To improve the applicability of the GSI (Geological Strength Index) in poor to very poor rock masses, using Broken Domain Structure (BSTR), Structure Rating (SR), and Intact Core Recovery (ICR), some modifications have been offered, resulting in the Modified-GSI. Applying rock-load height concept and Modified-GSI, an approach to estimate support pressure has been developed. The main advantage of this approach is its applicability in squeezing ground and anisotropic stress conditions. Numerical modelling was carried out in order to adjust the proposed support pressure equation. Considering convergence reduction approach, an elasto-plastic model based on the latest version of Hoek- Brown failure criterion has been developed for a more effective and practical grouted bolt design. The link between empirical approach and elasto-plastic solution makes it possible to reach more realistic and appropriate bolting pattern design. In this way, the need for the redesign procedure in the convergence reduction approach is eliminated. The results of the proposed elastic-plastic solution have been compared with a numerical model using FLAC2D, and a reasonable agreement was observed. The practical application of the developed methodology is depicted by an analysis of a case study in Turkey.

No contexto do crescimento do processo construtivo em alvenaria estrutural, destaca-se o uso do bloco cerâmico consolidado com a criação de sua norma específica de projeto, execução e controle de obras, a NBR 15812, partes 1 e 2 (ABNT, 2010). Desde a difusão da alvenaria estrutural, mudanças nas técnicas construtivas vêm ocorrendo, como por exemplo, o não preenchimento das juntas verticais de assentamento dos blocos. Outra prática que tem sido utilizada é o grauteamento da alvenaria. No entanto, ainda não está estabelecido se o não preenchimento da junta vertical compromete o desempenho da alvenaria ou qual a resistência necessária ao graute para aumentar a resistência da alvenaria. Diante disto, o trabalho objetiva contribuir com o estudo do não preenchimento das juntas verticais avaliando o seu efeito na resistência à compressão e ao cisalhamento de pequenas paredes e também pesquisar a influência do graute em prismas e pequenas paredes submetidos à compressão. Com as análises dos resultados pode-se concluir que o não preenchimento das juntas verticais não exerceu influência nos valores de resistência à compressão e também nos módulos de elasticidade longitudinal das pequenas paredes ensaiadas. No entanto, influenciou significativamente os resultados do ensaio de compressão diagonal para avaliar a resistência ao cisalhamento, apesar do módulo de deformação transversal ter sido considerado equivalente. Os resultados do estudo preliminar em prismas mostraram que a média da resistência à compressão em relação à área bruta do prisma grauteado, utilizando o Graute A e o Graute C, foi equivalente à média do prisma oco. Assim, foi escolhido o Graute A para a confecção de pequenas paredes e prismas. Pode-se concluir com os resultados das pequenas paredes grauteadas que houve um aumento significativo da resistência à compressão em relação à área bruta, mas em relação à área líquida, os valores encontrados foram equivalentes às pequenas paredes ocas. Portanto o aumento na resistência à compressão na pequena parede foi proporcional ao ganho de área dado pelo grauteamento de seus vazios, diferentemente do comportamento observado nos prismas. / In the context of growth of structural masonry construction process, it highlight the use of the ceramic block consolidated with the creation of its specific standard of design, execution and control, the NBR 15812, Parts 1 and 2 (ABNT, 2010). Since the propagation of structural masonry, changes have occurred in the construction techniques, such as don\'t fill the vertical joints of the masonry wall. Another technique that has been used is the grouted masonry. However, it is not yet established if the unfilled vertical joints compromise the performance of masonry or which strength is necessary to the grout to increase the strength of the masonry. Therewith, the paper aims to contribute to the study of unfilled vertical joints by analyzing its effect on compressive strength and shear strength of small walls and also investigate the influence of grout in prisms and small walls under compression. With the analysis of the results we can conclude that do not fill the vertical joints had no influence on the values of compressive strength and elastic modulus of the small walls tested. However, it significantly affects the results of the diagonal compression test to evaluate shear strength, despite the shear elastic modulus being considered equivalent. The results of the preliminary study in prisms showed that the average of the compressive strength in relation to the gross area of the grouted prism using the Grout A and the Grout C were equivalent to the average of hollow prism. Thus, small walls and prisms with the Grout A were made. It can be concluded with the results of grouted small walls that there was a significant increase in compressive strength with respect to the gross area, but in relation to the net area, were similar to the hollow small wall. Therefore the increase in the compressive strength in a small wall is proportional to the gain of the area given by the grout, unlike the behavior observed in the prisms.

Frågor kring kärnkraftverk har alltid varit ett omdiskuterat ämne. Kärnkraftens betydelse varierar stort mellan olika länder. Av 441 reaktorer i världen tillhör 10 av dem till Sverige. Kärnkraftverk i Oskarshamn är en av dem. Företaget OKG har beslutat att genomföra en övergripande utredning kring olika konstruktionstyper av reaktorinneslutningar med detta examensarbete. Arbetet begränsas till att göra en litteraturundersökning. En viss genomgång av både nationella och internationella rapporter har gjorts. Det primära syftet med detta examensarbete är uppdelat i två huvuddelar. Den första delen av utredningen visar olika konstruktionstyper av reaktorinneslutning i hela världen. Den andra delen visar de reaktorinneslutningarna som har en liknande konstruktion som på OKG d.v.s. betong som är förspänd med cementinjekterade spännkablar. En liknande konstruktion finns bl.a. i Finland och Frankrike. Vi har också diskuterat kontroller för andra konstruktionstyper där spännkablarna är omgivna av luft eller fettinjekterade. I utredningen redovisas en del inträffade skador och incidenter i Svenska och utländska kärnkraftverk reaktorer. Företaget har två övriga frågeställningar som undersöktes i senare skedet av arbetsgång. Spännkrafter minskar med tiden på grund av krympning och krypning i spännarmerade konstruktioner vilket påverkar säkerheten av konstruktionen negativt. Som en del av detta arbete utfördes undersökningar om det finns metoder att bestämma spännkrafter där spännkablarna inte är åtkomliga. I det slutliga skedet av utredningen undersöktes metoder som Trafikverket följer för att kontrollera sina broar d.v.s. utföra huvudinspektioner/ besiktningar. Huvudsyftet av examensarbetet har uppfyllts men vissa delar är begränsade på grund av mesta informationer av olika kärnkraftverk är konfidentiella och inte tillgängliga på nätet. Och alla våra undersökningar var webbaserade som innebär att vi hade inte möjlighet att hitta rätt informationer direkt från webben. Samtidigt kontakta de olika utländska kärnkraftverken var inte så lätt på kort varsel. Strålsäkerhetsmyndighet (SSM) hjälpte oss att få kontaktinformation av 3 olika länder. I slutet av rapporten ges analys och diskussion kring utredningen. / Questions regarding Nuclear Power Plants have always been a controversial subject. Nuclear power's importance varies between countries. Of the 441 reactors in the world 10 of them belongs to Sweden. Oskarshamn Nuclear Power Plant is one of them. OKG has decided to conduct a comprehensive investigation of this thesis work around some issues. The main purpose of this thesis work is to make a literature investigation about bracing cables in reactor containment. A specific review of national and international reports has been made and formed a collective basis with the company issues. The introductory part of this thesis is divided into two main parts. The first review of this report considers different structural types of reactor containment in the world. Most nuclear reactors are enclosed by a pre-stressed concrete containment and some have steel reactor containment. In both Sweden and Finland, the enclosure is designed as a concrete cylinder, which is pre-stressed both vertically and horizontally. The second review describes about those reactor containments, which has a similar construction to the OKG (the tendons are placed in the casing that after chucking was injected with cement mortar). A similar construction can be found in Finland and France. The investigation also reveals the damage and accidents in Swedish and foreign nuclear power reactors in recent years. Furthermore, company has two other issues, which were implemented in the later stages of the work. Due to shrinkage and creep in the concrete and relaxation in the tendons, the prestressed capacity decreases with time which affects the structure negatively. The objective of this thesis is to investigate if there are methods for determining tensile forces where the tendons are not accessible. Methods are divided into two different types: one is cement grouting method, same as OKG and another one is oil-injection method. The final review of report is to investigate about TRAFIKVERKET methods to check/inspection the bridges. It can be concluded that the main expectations of this thesis has been fulfilled but some parts are still missing due to limitation of proper information. To contact with the various foreign nuclear power plants was not so easy within this short time. All our experiments were web-based and there were many confidential matters which is unreachable. Swedish Radiation Safety authority (SSM) helped us to get contact details of 3 different countries. The discussions about the reviews are summarized at the end of the report.

L’installation et la maintenance des ancrages passifs scellés au rocher représentent un coût important dans le budget de fonctionnement des infrastructures de transport sujettes à l’aléa rocheux. Dans ce contexte, clarifier et optimiser les méthodes de dimensionnement actuellement employées représente un enjeu fort. Or le comportement d’un ancrage passif scellé au rocher est très complexe : il fait intervenir non seulement la rupture des matériaux constituants mais également la rupture des interfaces. Par ailleurs, la résistance de l’interface barre-scellement lors de l’arrachement d’un ancrage dépend du caractère dilatant de cette interface, liée à la géométrie de la barre (verrous) et à la plastification du matériau de scellement. Le travail de cette thèse porte sur une meilleure compréhension du comportement en traction d’un ancrage passif scellé au rocher, l’objectif étant d’améliorer la conception et le dimensionnement des ancrages sollicités axialement. Premièrement, le travail a consisté à définir le comportement de l’interface barre-scellement, Pour cela, un modèle numérique a été développé afin de reproduire des essais d’arrachement, sous différentes contraintes de confinement radial, de barres d’acier de haute adhérence (HA) scellées sur une longueur de 15 cm dans un cylindre de coulis de ciment (Moosavi et al. 2005). La géométrie réelle de l’interface acier–scellement a été considérée dans le modèle. Le comportement du coulis de scellement a été représenté par un modèle de type «concrete damage plasticity» (CDP), modèle de Lubliner (1986), implémenté dans Abaqus (2012). La représentation dans une approche continue de la plastification locale et de la fissuration, a nécessité un calage pour tenir compte des effets d’échelle. Le comportement de l’interface barre-scellement a ainsi été identifié comme cohésif dommageable avec frottement, dans une bande de cisaillement de largeur entre 2 et 3 fois la hauteur des verrous. Dans l’objectif de simuler un ancrage sur le terrain, des éléments d’interface représentant le contact acierscellement (sans les verrous) ont été développés.. La performance des éléments a été testée par la modélisation d’essais réalisés par Benmokrane et al. (1995) pour des barres de HA scellées en forage dans un bloc de béton, c’est-à-dire avec des conditions-limites radiales à rigidité constante. En parallèle, afin de tester l’influence de différents paramètres (géométrie, propriétés de matériau, accessoires de mise en oeuvre) sur le comportement de l’ancrage, une campagne insitu de 36 essais d’arrachement de barres d’acier HA scellées dans un massif calcaire résistant a été réalisée. Certaines barres équipées de fibre optique ont permis d’étudier finement la mobilisation de l’interface entre la barre d’acier et le matériau de scellement lors de la sollicitation axiale. Ces observations expérimentales, comparées aux résultats de la simulation numérique des essais, ont permis de valider le modèle numérique développé et en particulier les éléments d’interface. Par ailleurs, dans nos conditions d’essais, il n’est pas noté d’effet de la longueur de scellement ou de la résistance du coulis de scellement sur la résistance de l’ancrage : la résistance est limitée par la résistance en traction de la barre d’acier. Quant à la rigidité de l’ancrage, c’est le rapport diamètre de la barre/diamètre du forage ou un coulis plus résistant qui tend à rigidifier le comportement de l’ancrage. Pour un rocher résistant et homogène, la longueur de scellement efficace est au maximum de 65cm pour les diamètres usuels de barre. Elle tend à augmenter quand le système est plus déformable : coulis de scellement moins résistant ou, pour un diamètre de barre donné, diamètre de forage plus grand. La présence de la canule d’injection ne semble pas perturber le comportement de l’ancrage. Par contre, une attention particulière doit être portée à la mise en oeuvre de la chaussette géotextile. / Fully grouted rockbolts have been used for decades for transport infrastructure exposed to rockfall hazards. However their installation and maintenance are usually costly. Therefore, understanding and optimizing of the current design method for this type of anchorage is a major challenge. This study is not simple because of the complexity of fully grouted rockbolt behavior: its failure involves not only the failure of constituent materials (rockbolt, grout, rock), but also the failure of bolt-grout and grout-rock interfaces. Moreover, the strength of bolt-grout interface depends on the interface dilatancy, which is likely linked to the geometry of ribs and to the plastification of grout material. This thesis which includes two different parts, a numerical modeling and an experimental work, contributes hence to a better understanding of fully grouted rockbolt behavior under an axial tensile load, in order to improve the current design method. Firstly the bolt-grout interface behavior in particular the force transmission between the bolt and the grout, was studied. For this purpose, a numerical model was proposed to simulate the pull-out test of a short length of 15cm of bolt grouted in a cylinder of cement hardened paste, under constant confinement pressure (Moosavi et al., 2005). In this model, the bolt-grout interface was modeled with its real geometry, including ribs. To consider the different types of behavior and failure (tension, compression and shear) of the grout, this one was modeled by the concrete damage plasticity model (CDP model), which was developed by Lubliner et al. (1986) and implemented in Abaqus (2012). Moreover, the localization of plastic strain and the fracture of grout imply different size effects, which were also taken into consideration within the calibration of the parameters of the CDP model. The bolt-grout interface behavior was also identified to be a cohesive-damage friction interface within a 2 or 3 times the height of the ribs wide shear band. From these numerical modeling results, a constitutive model for the bolt-grout interface was developed to replace the real geometry of bolt-grout contact, in order to model in-situ anchors, whose length is much longer than that of anchors in laboratory tests. The interface model was then validated by performing the numerical simulation of the pullout tests of grouted bolt in borehole drilled in concrete block, carried out by Benmokranne et al. (1995), under constant rigidity of confinement instead of constant pressure of confinement. For the second part of this study, a series of 36 pull-out field tests of fully grouted rockbolt in a rigid limestone rock wall was conducted in order to study the influence of different parameters on the behavior of rock anchors (geometry, material characteristics, accessories). Certain of the bolts equipped with optical fiber allowed bolt strains to be measured along their length, and hence, the stress mobilization along the bolt-grout interface to be studied. The comparison between experimental and numerical results permitted us to validate the numerical simulation, in particular the proposed interface model. With our field test conditions, no influence of grouting length or grout resistance on the strength of anchor was noticed and the bolt strength was limited by the tensile strength of the steel rebar. It is the ratio of bolt diameter/borehole diameter or a stronger grout that tends to stiffen anchor. In a resistant and homogeneous rock and for usual rebar diameters, the efficient grouting length is lower than 65cm. This length increases when the system is more deformable, by using a less resistant grout or a higher grout thickness. The instalation of the cannula seem not to affect the anchor’s strength. However, a particular attention must be paid to the use of the geotextile sock.

Neste trabalho estudou-se o comportamento dos chumbadores grauteados, usados em ligações viga-pilar parcialmente resistentes a momento fletor. O foco da pesquisa foi a análise teórica e experimental do mecanismo resistente do chumbador inclinado. O programa experimental englobou 15 modelos, sendo que as variáveis analisados foram: a) diâmetros dos chumbadores, de 16 mm, 20 mm e 25 mm; b) inclinações dos chumbadores, de 0º (chumbador normal à interface), 45º e 60º; c) resistência à compressão do concreto adjacente ao chumbador, sendo usado concreto das classes C35 e C50; d) aplicação de força de compressão normal à interface. Os resultados experimentais indicaram aumentos significativos tanto na capacidade última quanto na rigidez a cisalhamento do chumbador. Foram realizadas simulações numéricas, onde foi verificada a sensibilidade dos resultados aos parâmetros inerentes à interface concreto - almofada de apoio, sendo desenvolvidas expressões para estimar tais parâmetros. Com base na análise experimental e em análises numéricas, foram propostos modelos analíticos que conseguiram representar de forma satisfatória a influência da inclinação e demais parâmetros analisados no mecanismo resistente do chumbador. / This research deals with the behavior of grouted dowels, used in partial moment resistant beam-to-column connections. The focus of the research was the theoretical and experimental analysis of dowels resistant mechanism. The experimental program include 15 models, and its variables analyzed were: a) the dowel diameter of 16 mm, 20 mm and 25 mm; b) the dowel inclination of 0° (dowels perpendicular to the interface), 45° and 60°; c) compressive strength of concrete adjacent to the dowels of classes C35 and C50, d) application of compression load, normal to the interface. Experimental results indicated significant increases in ultimate capacity and the shear stiffness of the dowels. Numerical simulations were carried out which identified the sensitivity of results to the parameters of the interface concrete bearing pad, and developed expressions to estimate such parameters are given. Based on experimental and numerical analysis analytical models have been proposed that could adequately represent the influence of inclination and other parameters in the mechanism resistant dowels.

In order to meet EU legislation on emissions, significant effort is being invested into the development of cost-effective renewable power generation technologies. The two leading technologies are solar and wind power because of their potential for the lowest levelised cost of energy and for showing a growth in installed capacity and technological development. Various research findings have suggested that significant cost savings in the capital expenditure of renewable energy projects can be made through the optimisation of their support foundations, the understanding of which has formed the main goal of the research.