L'utilisation des produits phytosanitaires dans l'agriculture moderne pose un problème pour l'équilibre des écosystèmes et la santé de l'homme. Un des problèmes majeurs est la dégradation de la qualité de l'eau de surface et de l'eau souterraine pour la consommation et la qualité des écosystèmes aquatiques.<br /><br />Il existe un réel besoin d'outils opérationnels facilitant l'agrégation des processus de transferts au niveau des bassins versants à des fins de maîtrise des contaminations des eaux par les produits phytosanitaires. La plupart des outils opérationnels sont des indicateurs environnementaux, rapides et simples d'utilisation. Cependant, ils ne donnent que un niveau de risque et n'intègrent pas ou très peu l'incertitude liée à des critères spatiaux et temporels.<br /><br />Cette thèse propose un modèle orienté décision des transferts par ruissellement et subsurface des herbicides. Il vise à produire une évaluation semi-quantitative de la contamination des eaux de rivière par les herbicides à l'échelle de petits bassins versants agricoles (quelques dizaines km²) au cours des quelques mois suivant les traitements. Une nouvelle représentation spatiale a été proposée. Elle est basée sur la spatialisation des pratiques agricoles et des processus physiques de transferts du bassin versant sous la forme d'un arbre d'exutoires de parcelles. Ce niveau de représentation permet une modélisation réaliste, opérationnelle et répondant aux besoins des acteurs locaux.<br /><br />Le modèle intègre le réseau hydrographique, le réseau de fossés et le réseau de haies structurant l'espace du bassin versant. Les processus majeurs de transfert des herbicides dans les bassins sur socle sont le ruissellement et les écoulements de subsurface. Ces processus sont modélisés de manière simple mais explicite. Le ruissellement est calculé en fonction des états de surface du sol et le degré de contamination par subsurface est calculé en fonction de la profondeur de nappe.<br /><br />Pour permettre de générer des scénarii réalistes d'itinéraires techniques de désherbage sur des bassins versants comprenant un nombre important de parcelles, un modèle décisionnel est développé et couplé au modèle de transfert. Ce modèle décisionnel simule les décisions des agriculteurs à différents niveaux d'organisation (parcelle, exploitation).<br /><br />L'application du modèle porte sur le bassin versant du Frémeur, bassin versant du réseau Bretagne Eau Pure.

Two different modeling approaches to simulate pesticide fate and transport in soil were investigated in this study. First, a process-based mathematical model, DRAINMOD-P, was developed by combining the attractive features of DRAINMOD and PESTFADE. While DRAINMOD formed the main component to perform hydrological predictions, PESTFADE's pesticide sub-model was used to simulate pesticide fate. The new model was validated against three years of independently collected field data from southern Ontario. Several statistical parameters were calculated to evaluate model performance. / Second, an implicit model, Multivariate Adaptive Regression Splines, MARS, which is also a novel data mining tool, was used to assess pesticide transport. MARS was first validated against the field data on three herbicides, namely, atrazine, metribuzin and metolachlor. DRAINMOD-P and MARS simulations, though impressive, need further validations before they can be recommended for actual real-world use.* / *This dissertation is a compound document (contains both a paper copy and a CD as part of the dissertation). The CD requires the following system requirements: Microsoft Office; Adobe Acrobat.

Field studies were conducted in Ontario in 2009 and 2010 to determine the tolerance of winter wheat to herbicide-fungicide tank-mixtures, and the tolerance of winter wheat underseeded red clover to commonly used herbicides applied at three timings. Tank-mixtures including the fungicide tebuconazole caused injury at early and late timings, while mixtures including the herbicide bromoxynil/MCPA were most injurious when applied late in the season. Injury was transient with no yield reductions observed. MCPA/mecoprop/dicamba caused significant yield reductions when applied at normal and late timings, but did not reduce yield when applied early. The herbicides prosulfuron+bromoxynil and pyrasulfotole/bromoxynil were most injurious to underseeded red clover and reduced clover biomass regardless of application timing. Herbicides and herbicide-fungicide tank-mixtures applied early, during cold temperatures do not increase winter wheat or red clover sensitivity; the likelihood of injury is greatest when applications of these products occur late. / Grain Farmers of Ontario; Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs; Agriculture Adaptation Council of Canada

Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L., Asteraceae) is an annual herbacious weed that is a troublesome pest in carrot fields of Southwestern Quebec. Over the past decade, ragweed has shown resistance to linuron, the only herbicide that is registered for post-emergence control of this weed in carrots. In this research, the degree of resistance to linuron was investigated for a ragweed biotype collected from a carrot field in Sherrington, Quebec, where a decreased performance of linuron had been noted. This biotype showed a linuron resistance ratio (I50) of 9.09, when compared with ragweed plants collected from a field never sprayed with this herbicide. The fungal pathogen Phoma sp., which had been initially isolated from diseased ragweed leaves in 1993, was considered as a potentially effective biological agent for the control of common ragweed. The pathogenicity of Phoma sp. was re-evaluated during the current research. This fungus was found not to have any appreciable virulence towards common ragweed; it is likely that virulence was lost during storage. Hence, twenty other fungal species were isolated from diseased common ragweed plants and assayed to determine their potential as biological agents against this noxious weed. Varying dew periods, temperatures, spore concentrations, host growth stages, and different types of carrier were evaluated. Only isolates ATT#9, INNA4a, INNA4b, ATT#10, ISO#65, and ISO#68 were able to induce lesions on ragweed foliage at spore concentrations of 106 to 107 spores ml-1, but only after an extended dew period of 48 hrs. No interaction effects on the degree of ragweed control were found when combining five fungal isolates and the insect, Ophraella communa LeSage. However, a possible interactive effect was detected when the fungal isolate ISO#65 and linuron were used in combination.

Les diatomées sont des microalgues ubiquistes d'une diversité exceptionnelle. Cela en fait de bons indicateurs de la qualité des écosystèmes aquatiques et sont utilisées depuis plus de 50 ans. Depuis l'année 2000, la Directive Cadre Européenne sur l'Eau impose leur utilisation pour évaluer la qualité écologique des cours d'eau. Un cadre typologique doit être utilisé afin de comparer des rivières comparables entre elles, c'est-à-dire des rivières de mêmes régions bioclimatiques, coulant sur les mêmes substrats géologiques et à des altitudes comparables. Différentes classifications écorégionales ont été définies sur la base de ces paramètres. Nous avons montré qu'à une échelle couvrant 4 pays (Espagne, France, Italie, Suisse) et à une régionale (Nord-est de la France), les écorégions et la géologie sont déterminantes pour expliquer les communautés. Les paramètres caractérisant la pollution sont moins importants. Contrairement à certains auteurs, nous n'avons pas observé d'homogénéisation des communautés lorsque le niveau de pollution augmente. D'autre part nous n'avons pas observé de communautés restreintes géographiquement : cela permettrait de rassembler des écorégions distinctes géographiquement mais présentant les mêmes caractéristiques physiques. Les diatomées présentent une diversité spécifique très importante qui peut être un frein à leur utilisation en routine. Nous avons montré qu'en augmentant la précision de détermination (de la subdivision à l'espèce), les performances d'évaluation de la pollution augmentait mais beaucoup moins que le nombre de taxons. Les performances d'évaluation entre le genre et l'espèce sont d'ailleurs proches, alors qu'il y a dix fois plus d'espèce que de genres. Nous avons montré aussi que des métriques simplificatrices (formes de vie, guildes écologiques) permettaient d'évaluer aussi bien le niveau en nutriment que des indices diatomiques basés sur les espèces. Ces métriques apportent des informations supplémentaires en termes de structure de biofilm qui ne sont accessible aux données en espèce. Enfin, la pollution des rivières par les micropolluants devient une préoccupation sociétale croissante. Nous avons émis l'hypothèse que les diatomées pouvaient être de bons candidats pour évaluer la pression en herbicides. Quatre expérimentations de 2 mois ont été réalisées en mésocosmes lotiques. Nous avons montré que les diatomées vivant entourées de matrices polysaccharidiques épaisses étaient plus résistantes aux pesticides dissous. Au contraire les diatomées présentant une surface cellulaire de contact importante avec l'eau étaient défavorisées. Ce type de métrique pourrait être utilisé in situ à plus large échelle. Nous concluons sur l'intérêt d'intégrer ces métriques à la bioindication par les diatomées. Mais également nous soulignons l'importance de croiser la phylogénie et l'écologie pour mieux comprendre quelles pressions environnementales ont forcées les diatomées à s'adapter. Si ces pressions peuvent être reliées à des pressions anthropiques, la bioindication par les diatomées en sera améliorée.

A one-dimensional transient mathematical model which can predict simultaneous movement of water and reactive solutes through homogeneous soil systems under saturated/unsaturated conditions is developed. The physically-based numerical model, called PESTFADE, considers the interactive processes/mechanisms such as mass flow, plant uptake, adsorption/desorption, dispersion, volatilization, chemical/microbial degradation and runoff in the simulation. / The PESTFADE model employs SWACROP, a model developed in the Netherlands, to simulate transient water flow in the unsaturated zone; evaluates non-equilibrium sorption in macropores, analyzes soil heat flow to to model microbial degradation, calculates pesticide partitioning in runoff/sediment as affected by agricultural management practices, and describes first order degradation and sorption kinetics. The governing partial differential equation describing the various processes is solved numerically via the Numerical Method of Lines (NMOL) technique, and the computer programs are written in FORTRAN 77. The resulting computer code (PESTFADE), is run on a microcomputer and has been implemented for interactive simulation on IBM PC or compatible microcomputers. / The model was tested and validated using actual data measured from field plot experiments involving herbicide atrazine which was post-emergently applied in a corn field on a loam soil. Various analytical solutions were used to check the accuracy of the different components of PESTFADE, and parametric sensitivity analyses were performed to determine how the model output reacts to changes in some selected input parameters. / Results indicate that model predictions generally agreed with measured concentrations of atrazine and compared closely with the analytical solutions. Moreover, model performance tests showed that predicted values are within acceptable ranges of model accuracy and bound of experimental uncertainties. It was also found that the model is very sensitive to degradation rate constant (k), sorption coefficient (K$ sb{ rm d})$ and soil temperature and slightly sensitive to management practice (CN) and sorption site fraction (F). Finally, the various field scenarios and pathways for non-point source contamination evaluated in the study have demonstrated the wide applicability and flexibility of PESTFADE.

Canola is a cool-season, oilseed crop grown throughout Europe, Canada, and the Northern Great Plains region of the United States. The expansion of canola production into new growing regions, such as the Southern Plains region, has resulted in new production challenges. The Southern Plains region cultivates canola as a winter annual compared to a spring annual for the Northern Great Plains and Canada. Given the difference in climate and weed spectrum, region-specific weed management systems need to be developed. Agronomic practices can affect seed oil content, protein content, and fatty acid composition, however the effect of herbicides on these and other characteristic of canola are unknown. Therefore, experiments were conducted in 2010 and 2011 to evaluate a broad spectrum of herbicides for potential use in South Texas canola production with respect to crop injury, effects on canola seed oil content, fatty acid composition, weed control, biomass yield, and forage quality. Visual crop injury at 42 DAE was unacceptable for saflufenacil at both 0.12 and 0.06 kg ai ha-1 and ethalfluralin at 1.05 kg ai ha-1. Trifluralin at 1.12 and 0.56 kg ai ha-1, S-metolachlor at 2.14 and 1.07 kg ai ha-1, pyroxasulfone at 0.24 and 0.12 kg ai ha-1, and pendimethalin at 0.8 kg ai ha-1 had lowest visual injury of all treatments. Fluroxypyr applied EPOST caused severe injury at both 0.21 and 0.11 kg ae ha-1. All other EPOST treatments did not cause any visible injury. Seed oil content was not affected by the herbicides evaluated. Fatty acid composition, specifically stearic acid, oleic acid, linolenic acid, and oleic to linolenic acid ratio, was affected by herbicide treatments. This research found that protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPG oxidase) inhibitor herbicides, such as carfentrazone-ethyl and saflufenacil, negatively affect canola oil quality. Biomass yield was improved for all herbicide treatments except pendimethalin PRE when compared to the untreated plots. Crude protein content of canola forage was not affected by herbicide treatment. Digestible dry matter appeared to be reduced by treatments that included an EPOST application of sethoxydim. The research shows that pendimethalin and S-metolachlor may be suitable for canola production in South Texas based on low crop injury and effective weed control. Neither pendimethalin nor S-metolachlor is currently labeled for use in canola. The herbicides trifluralin, ethalfluralin, quizalofop P-ethyl, ethametsulfuron-methyl, sethoxydim, glyphosate, clethodim, and clopyralid are currently labeled for use in canola and were confirmed suitable for canola production in South Texas. Carfentrazone-ethyl is currently labeled for use in canola but the effects on oil quality should be considered.

The work presented in this thesis represents a contribution to the area of modeling of the transport and fate of herbicides applied to cropped fields, and was part of a larger research effort geared towards better management of herbicides. The main objective of this thesis was to develop a graphical user interface (GUI) for PESTFADE, a process-based mathematical model of pesticide transport and degradation, and to provide documentation for the execution of PESTFADE. The model simulates changes in pesticide concentration at different depths in the soil, based on relevant physical, chemical, biological and meteorological factors. PESTFADE is considered to be one of the most comprehensive models of its kind. However, it was, until now, difficult to implement due to absence of a user manual and graphical interface suitable for exploitation in a Windows environment. The author developed the GUI in Visual Basic, created macros to facilitate certain calculations, rewrote the original FORTRAN 77 code and then validated the updated version against field data obtained from an experimental site (Eugene Whelan Farm, Woodslea, Ontario). A preliminary development of an artificial neural network (ANN) to perform the same simulation implicitly, with fewer input parameters and less computational time, was also done. / The thesis describes PESTFADE and the GUI, gives guidelines for implementing the package, and presents the results of the field validation of the revised version. During this work, the author discovered that there were problems in the parts of the code dealing with sorption phenomena. This can be solved by conventional kinetics or by Gamble kinetics.

O arsênio é um metaloide encontrado nas formas orgânica e inorgânica em estado de oxidação trivalente ou pentavalente. Na medicina veterinária a intoxicação por arsênio foi associada, no passado, ao contato acidental com pesticidas e ao uso indevido de medicamentos à base de arsênio inorgânico. Atualmente a intoxicação em bovinos tem sido relatada devido à exposição prolongada a ambientes contaminados. No Brasil, devido à proibição do uso de arsênio inorgânico na formulação de pesticidas, herbicidas a base de metanoarseniato ácido monossódico (MSMA), um arsenical orgânico pentavalente, considerado menos tóxico, têm sido utilizados em plantas infestantes em pós-emergência em culturas de algodão, café, cana-de-açúcar e citros. Em maio de 2014, em uma fazenda no município de Barra do Ribeiro, RS, foi realizada aplicação via aérea de um herbicida formulado com MSMA. Cerca de 200 vacas de corte e terneiros estavam sobre o local e apresentaram diarreia acentuada e severa desidratação após ingerir o pasto contaminado. Dezesseis animais morreram em até 20 dias, sendo seis submetidos ao exame de necropsia. As principais alterações macroscópicas consistiram de avermelhamento difuso da mucosa dos pré-estômagos, abomaso, e intestino, múltiplas úlceras e desprendimento multifocal da mucosa de pré-estômagos com acentuado edema de submucosa e hemorragia multifocal nas serosas. Microscopicamente, as principais alterações foram caracterizadas por necrose isquêmica multifocal associada à necrose fibrinoide de vasos e trombose na mucosa e submucosa. Com exceção de um bovino, os níveis de arsênio detectados estavam acima do limite de referência para a espécie, de 0,5 μg/g ou ppm. O exame anatomopatológico dos bovinos demonstrou que o MSMA promove lesões na mucosa de pré-estômagos por meio de necrose fibrinoide da parede de arteríolas e capilares. Apesar de ser classificado como pentavalente, durante sua metabolização, o MSMA pode gerar metabólitos intermediários trivalentes, que poderiam ter contribuído supostamente com as lesões observadas neste surto. As lesões observadas são similares às alterações promovidas pela forma inorgânica trivalente do arsênio em bovinos. A utilização de herbicidas que contém MSMA deve ser cautelosa, evitando-se o contato de animais em pastagens recém-pulverizadas. / Arsenic is a metalloid found in organic and inorganic forms in a state of trivalent or pentavalent oxidation. In veterinary medicine arsenic poisoning has been associated in the past to accidental contact with pesticides and misuse of medicinal products containing inorganic arsenic. Currently subclinical poisoning in cattle has been reported due to prolonged exposure to contaminated environments. In Brazil, due to the ban of of inorganic arsenic in pesticide formulation, herbicides methane arsenate monosodium acid (MSMA), an organic arsenical pentavalent, considered less toxic, has been used against weeds in post-emergent cotton, coffee, sugarcane and citrus. In May 2014, on a farm in the municipality of Barra do Ribeiro, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, air application was made on a Tifton cultivated paddock with a MSMA formulated herbicide. About 200 beef cows and calves were on the paddock and showed severe diarrhea and severe dehydration after consuming contaminated pasture. Sixteen animals died in 20 days, six of which were necropsied. The main gross lesions consisted of diffuse reddening of the mucosa of the fore stomachs, abomasum and intestines; multiple ulcers and multifocal detachment of the mucosa with severe edema of submucosa and multifocal hemorrhage in the serous membranes. Microscopically the main changes were characterized by multifocal ischemic necrosis associated with fibrinoid necrosis of vessels and thrombosis in the mucosa and submucosa. Except in one bovine, the levels of organic arsenic detected were above the reference level for the species (0,5 μg/g or ppm). The pathology found in the affected cattle showed that MSMA causes injuries in the mucosal pre-stomachs through fibrinoid necrosis the walls of arterioles and capillaries. Although it is classified as pentavalent, during their metabolism the MSMA can generate trivalent intermediate metabolites, supposedly responsible for the injuries observed in this outbreak. The lesions found in the outbreak of this repot are similar to those caused in cattle by inorganic trivalent form of arsenic. Herbicides containing MSMA must be used with caution, avoiding the contact of the animals with freshly sprayed pasture.

Ecossistemas campestres encontram-se fortemente impactados por conversão de hábitat e por espécies exóticas invasoras. É necessário restaurar os ecossistemas campestres ao redor do globo. Entretanto, para os ecossistemas campestres brasileiros há poucas experiências de restauração e precisamos testar a viabilidade de técnicas normalmente empregadas em outros lugares. O objetivo deste estudo foi testar diferentes combinações de técnicas para restauração de campos invadidos por Urochloa decumbens nos Campos Sulinos, sul do Brasil. Combinaram-se duas técnicas de controle da espécie invasora (aplicação de herbicida e remoção superficial de solo) e duas técnicas de introdução de espécies nativas (transposição de feno e semeadura direta). Foram estabelecidos oito blocos em um experimento bifatorial no Morro Santana, Porto Alegre, combinando dois fatores e cada um com três tratamentos (duas técnicas mais o controle). A cobertura de vários grupos de espécies, riqueza de espécies e composição de espécies foram avaliadas por análises de variância, e então também por análise de coordenadas principais. Adicionalmente, a relação entre a cobertura da invasora e das espécies nativas foi investigada. As técnicas de controle da invasora mostraram-se eficientes tanto na redução da cobertura da espécie, como em permitir a entrada de espécies nativas na comunidade. Comparando as duas técnicas, aplicação de herbicida pareceu ser melhor do que a remoção superficial de solo, pois parcelas que tiveram a aplicação tiveram menor cobertura da invasora e maior riqueza de espécies. Já as técnicas de introdução de espécies mostraram-se insuficientes para adicionar espécies nativas na comunidade para competir com U. decumbens. Padrões de composição de espécies diferiram entre os tratamentos. Técnicas de controle do invasor diferiram grandemente do seu controle, que foi dominado por U. decumbens. Uma clara relação existe entre a cobertura da invasora e a presença e cobertura de espécies nativas. Então o controle da espécie invasora é fundamental para uma maior recuperação da vegetação. Entretanto, os resultados aqui apresentados correspondem a apenas oito meses após a finalização da implementação do experimento, e ações futuras de manejo na área deverão combinar novamente o controle da invasora com introdução de espécies nativas. / Grasslands ecosystems are strongly impacted by land use and invasive species. It is necessary restore these ecosystems around the world. However, there are few experiences with ecological restoration for the Brazilian grasslands and we need to test the viability of techniques normally used in others grasslands ecosystems. The aim of this study was to test different combinations of techniques to the ecological restoration of grasslands invaded by Urochloa decumbens in Campos, Southern Brazil. We combine two techniques to control the invasive species (herbicide application and topsoil removal) and two techniques to introduce native species (hay transfer and direct sowing). We established nine blocks in a bi-factorial experiment on Morro Santana, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, combining two factors and each one with three treatments (two techniques plus the control). The coverage of various groups of species, species richness, and species composition were evaluated by variance analyses, and the later also by a principal ordination analysis. Additionally, the relation between invader coverage and native species was investigated. Both techniques to control invasive species have shown to be efficient to reduce the coverage of the invasive species, as well as to allow the arrival of native species. Specifically comparing them, the herbicide application seems to be a better treatment than the topsoil removal, once plots with herbicide had lower invasive species coverage and higher species richness. However, the species introduction techniques failed efficiently to add native species to the community composition and to compete with U. decumbens. Species composition patterns differed among the treatments. The invader control techniques greatly differed from their control, which was dominated by U. decumbens. A clear relationship exists between the invader coverage and the presence and coverage of native species. Thus, the control of the invasive species is fundamental to further vegetation recovery. Nevertheless, results here presented correspond to just eight months from the experiment implantation and future monitoring and management actions on the area should combine once more the control of the invasive species and the introduction of native species.