Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) has a large linear double-stranded DNA genome in an icosahedral capsid shell, a cell-derived lipid envelope and a proteinaceous tegument layer. There are over fifty viral proteins and many host proteins identified in HSV-1 virions. The final formation of mature virus particles requires the membrane wrapping of tegumented capsids in the cytoplasm, a process termed secondary envelopment. This process involves the coordination of numerous viral and cellular proteins and results in double-membrane structures with enveloped virions contained within cellular vesicles. Mature viruses are then released through the fusion of these virion-containing vesicles and plasma membranes. This thesis describes investigation into the functions of viral glycoprotein M (gM) and the cellular Endosomal Sorting Complexes Required for Transport (ESCRT) in secondary envelopment. Firstly, it has been reported that gH/L can be efficiently internalised and targeted to the TGN by the co-expression of gM in transfection assays. In order to examine the role of gM in guiding the localisation of viral proteins in infected cells, a HSV-1 gM deletion virus (∆gM), and its revertant virus were constructed. The major phenotype demonstrated was that the absence of gM caused the internalisation of cell surface gH/L to be inhibited and higher levels of gH/L to be observed on the cell surface. Further, lower levels of gH/L were detected in purified ∆gM virions, which was in agreement with the delayed entry kinetics, smaller plaque sizes and greater replication deficits at low multiplicity of infection observed in ∆gM infected cells. Over all the results presented in this thesis demonstrate that in infected cells the efficient incorporation of gH/L into virions relies on the function of gM in HSV-1. Secondly, during HSV-1 secondary envelopment the budding and scission of the viral envelope from the host membrane share topological similarities with the formation of intraluminal vesicle in multivesicular bodies, retrovirus budding, and abscission at the end of cytokinesis, processes that require the cellular ESCRT machinery. There are four multiprotein ESCRT complexes and many associated proteins involved in their regulation. It has been previously shown that the ESCRT-III complex and a functional ATPase VPS4 are required for HSV-1 secondary envelopment, but different from the strategy utilised by HIV-1, the recruitment of ESCRT during HSV-1 infection is independent of TSG101 and/or ALIX. Data presented in this thesis demonstrate that CHMP4A/B/C proteins of the ESCRT-III complex are specifically crucial for HSV-1 secondary envelopment. Simultaneous depletion of CHMP4A/B/C proteins significantly inhibited HSV-1 replication. Ultrastructure analysis revealed that there were virtually no extracellular virions in CHMP4A/B/C depleted samples while more free capsids were observed in the cytoplasm, although the nuclear capsids and primary envelopment events appeared to be normal. In order to identify interactions between HSV-1 and ESCRT proteins, 22 HSV-1 tegument proteins were cloned and tested against a panel of ESCRT and ESCRT-associated proteins in yeast two-hydrid assays. Analysis of positive hits from yeast two-hybrid interaction screens using GST pull-down, co-immunoprecipitation and protein co-localisation assays have validated interactions of pUL47 with CC2D1A/1B, CIN85, CHMP6 and ALIX, pUL46 and pUL49 with CC2D1A/1B and CIN85, and pUL16 with CC2D1A/1B. Furthermore, the newly identified ESCRT associated proteins CC2D1A and CC2D1B have been detected in purified virions. The role of the identified ESCRT proteins in HSV-1 replication has been investigated using siRNA depletion. Unfortunately siRNA depletions of the various ESCRT candidates individually or in combinations did not show any significant effect on HSV-1 replication. Overall these data suggest that unlike HIV and other retroviruses, HSV-1 has evolved multiple parallel pathways to hijack the ESCRT machinery to facilitate its replication, particularly, through the interactions that lead directly to the recruitment of CHMP4A/B/C proteins. Disruption of some of these pathways did not prevent HSV-1 replication in tissue culture, suggesting any one potential pathway is sufficient for ESCRT recruitment to sites of HSV-1 assembly.

No description available.

Lors de l'infection par le virus herpès simplex de type 1 (VHS-1), quatre types de capsides nucléaires sont créés : les procapsides et les capsides A, B, et C. Sur les quatre capsides, seules les capsides C contiennent de l'ADN viral et deviendront des particules infectieuses. Un niveau de régulation se produit lors de la sortie du noyau qui favorise la sortie d’es capsides C du noyau. Le mécanisme qui sous-tend ce phénomène est actuellement inconnu. Les recherches actuelles suggèrent que l'interaction entre la protéine virale pUL25 modifie la conformation de la couche hexamérique plane du complexe de sortie nucléaire (NEC) pour y introduire des pentamères et donc causer un arrondissement de la membrane et le bourgeonnement des capsides. Cependant, des questions subsistent quant à la manière dont les capsides A, B et C sont différenciées au sein du noyau pour assurer une sortie spécifique de la capside C puisque pUL25 se retrouve dans tous les types de capsides. Nous étudions ici comment les protéines de l'hôte peuvent agir dans la sortie nucléaire des capsides C. En se basant sur une étude précédente du laboratoire où la protéine hôte poly(C)-binding protein 1 (PCBP1) a été trouvée spécifiquement sur les capsides C par spectrométrie de masse, nous explorons le rôle de la PCBP1 dans l'infection par le VHS-1. À l'aide d’essaies de plaques, nous montrons que la PCBP1 est importante pour l'infection virale, car en son absence, les titres diminuent et lorsque la PCBP1 est sur-exprimée, les titres augmentent. Ce résultat ne semble pas être dû au fait que les PCBP1 affectent l'expression génique de sous-ensembles de gènes viraux immédiats précoces, précoces ou tardifs, ni qu'ils affectent la réplication du génome ou son encapsidation. La réduction des PCBP1 ne provoque pas d'accumulation de capsides ou de particules matures tel qu’évalué par la microscopie électronique, mais elle augmente le nombre de capsides B enveloppées dans l'espace périnucléaire (PNS). L'inhibition de PCBP1 diminue également le niveau de protéine pUL24, une protéine virale importante pour la sortie du virus du noyau. Nos résultats démontrent que la PCBP1 pourrait réguler l’activité de pUL24, de sorte que lorsque la PCBP1 est épuisée, pUL24 permet à plus de capsides B de se rendre dans l'espace périnucléaire. Cette recherche constitue un point de départ pour une analyse plus approfondie du mécanisme exact des PCBP1 dans les infections à HSV-1. En outre, elle pourrait fournir des indices importants pour élucider comment le pUL24 favorise la sortie du nucléaire. / During herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infection, four types of nuclear capsids are made: procapsids and A-, B- and C-capsids. Of the four capsids, only C-capsids contain the viral DNA and will become infectious progeny. A level of regulation occurs during nuclear egress that ensures only C-capsids exit the nucleus. The mechanism that underlies this phenomenon is presently unknown. Current research suggests the viral protein pUL25 alters the conformation of the viral nuclear egress complex (NEC) that forms a flat hexameric coat on nuclear membranes by the introduction of pentamers and therefore the induction of membrane rounding and viral budding. However, questions remain for how A-, B-, and C-capsids are differentiated within the nucleus to ensure C-capsid specific egress since pUL25 is found on all capsid types. Here we investigate how host proteins may play a role in nuclear egress of C-capsids. Based on the lab’s previous study where host protein poly(C)-binding protein 1 (PCBP1) was found specifically on C-capsids via mass spectrometry, we explore the role of PCBP1 in HSV-1 infection. Using plaque assays we show that PCBP-1 is important for viral infection, as in its absence titers decrease and when PCBP1 is over expressed titers increase. This result does not seem to be due to PCBP1 affecting gene expression of immediate early, early, or late viral gene subsets, nor does it seem to affect genome replication or encapsidation. PCBP1 knockdown does not cause an accumulation of capsids or mature particles as assessed by electron microscopy, but it does increase the number of enveloped B-capsids observed in the perinuclear space (PNS). Depletion of PCBP1 also decreases the level of pUL24, a viral protein implicated in viral nuclear egress. Our results suggest that PCBP1 could be regulating pUL24 for proper activity in nuclear egress, such that when PCBP1 is depleted, more B-capsids are able to bud through the PNS. This research constitutes a starting point for further analysis into the exact mechanism of PCBP1 in HSV-1 infections. In addition, it may provide important clues to elucidate how pUL24 supports nuclear egress.

The development of safe and efficient gene delivery systems in pluripotent human embryonic stem cells (hESc) is essential to realising their full potential for basic and clinical research. The purpose of this study was to develop an efficient, non-integrating gene expression system in pluripotent hESc using human artificial chromosomes (HAC). Similar to endogenous chromosomes, HAC are capable of gene expression, replication and segregation during cell division. Unlike retroviral-mediated gene delivery vectors, HAC do not integrate into the host genome and can encompass large genomic regions for the delivery of multiple genes. Despite the advantages HAC offer, their use has been limited due to laborious cloning procedures and poor transfection efficiencies, and thus only studied in immortalised and tumour-derived human cell lines. In this study, the high transduction efficiency of herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) amplicons was utilised to overcome the described difficulties and delivered HAC vectors into pluripotent hESc. Analysis of stable hESc clones showed that de novo gene-expressing HAC were present at high frequencies ranging from 10-70% of metaphases analysed, without integrating into the genome. The established HAC contained an active centromere, and were stably maintained without integration or loss in the absence of selection for 90 days. Stable HAC-containing hESc clones retained their pluripotency as demonstrated by neuronal differentiation, in vitro germ layer and teratoma formation assays. HAC gene expression persisted, with some variation, post-differentiation in the various deriving cell types. This is the first report of successful de novo HAC formation in hESc for gene expression studies. These findings show potential for delivering high-capacity genomic constructs safely and efficiently into pluripotent cells for the purpose of genetic manipulation and ultimately patient-specific somatic gene therapy.

Le Virus Herpès Simplex de type 1 (HSV-1) est un agent infectieux qui cause l’herpès chez une grande proportion de la population mondiale. L’herpès est généralement considéré comme une maladie bénigne dont la forme la plus commune est l'herpès labial (communément appelé « bouton de fièvre »), mais elle peut se révéler très sérieuse et causer la cécité et l’encéphalite, voir létale dans certain cas. Le virus persiste toute la vie dans le corps de son hôte. Jusqu'à présent, aucun traitement ne peut éliminer le virus et aucun vaccin n’a été prouvé efficace pour contrôler l’infection herpétique. HSV-1 est un virus avec un génome d’ADN bicaténaire contenu dans une capside icosaèdrale entourée d’une enveloppe lipidique. Treize glycoprotéines virales se trouvent dans cette enveloppe et sont connues ou supposées jouer des rôles distincts dans différentes étapes du cycle de réplication viral, incluant l'attachement, l'entrée, l’assemblage, et la propagation des virus. La glycoprotéine M (gM) qui figure parmi ces glycoprotéines d’enveloppe, est la seule glycoprotéine non essentielle mais est conservée dans toute la famille herpesviridae. Récemment, l’homologue de gM dans le Pseudorabies virus (PRV), un autre herpesvirus, a été impliqué dans la phase finale de l’assemblage (i.e. l’enveloppement cytoplasmique) au niveau du réseau trans-Golgi (TGN) en reconnaissant spécifiquement des protéines tégumentaires et d’autres glycoprotéines d’enveloppe ([1]). Toutefois, il a été proposé que cette hypothèse ne s’applique pas pour le HSV-1 ([2]). De plus, contrairement à la localisation au TGN dans les cellules transfectées, HSV-1 gM se localise dans la membrane nucléaire et sur les virions périnucléaires durant une infection. L’objectif du projet présenté ici était d’éclaircir la relation de la localisation et la fonction de HSV-1 gM dans le contexte d’une infection. Dans les résultats rapportés ici, nous décrivons tout abord un mécanisme spécifique de ciblage nucléaire de HSV-1 gM. En phase précoce d’une infection, gM est ciblée à la membrane nucléaire d'une manière virus ii dépendante. Cela se produit avant la réorganisation du TGN normalement induite par l’infection et avant que gM n’entre dans la voie de sécrétion. Ce ciblage nucléaire actif et spécifique de gM ne semble pas dépendre des plusieurs des partenaires d’interaction proposés dans la littérature. Ces données suggèrent que la forme nucléaire de gM pourrait avoir un nouveau rôle indépendant de l’enveloppement final dans le cytoplasme. Dans la deuxième partie du travail présenté ici, nous avons concentré nos efforts sur le rôle de gM dans l’assemblage du virus en phase tardive de l’infection et en identifiant un domaine critique de gM. Nos résultats mettent en valeur l’importance du domaine carboxyl-terminal cytoplasmique de gM dans le transport de gM du réticulum endoplasmique (RE) à l’appareil de Golgi, dans l’enveloppement cytoplasmique et la propagation intercellulaire du virus. Ainsi, l’export du RE de gM a été complètement compromis dans les cellules transfectées exprimant un mutant de gM dépourvu de sa région C-terminale. La délétion la queue cytoplasmique de gM cause une réduction légère du titre viral et de la taille des plaques. L'analyse de ces mutants par microscopie électronique a démontré une accumulation des nucléocapsides sans enveloppe dans le cytoplasme par rapport aux virus de type sauvage. Étrangement, ce phénotype était apparent dans les cellules BHK mais absent dans les cellules 143B, suggérant que la fonction de gM dépende du type cellulaire. Finalement, le criblage de partenaires d’interaction du domaine C-terminal de gM identifiés par le système de double-hybride nous a permis de proposer plusieurs candidats susceptibles de réguler la fonction de gM dans la morphogénèse et la propagation de virus. / Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 (HSV-1) is an infectious agent causing herpes, which affects a large population worldwide. Herpes is generally considered a benign disease whose most common form is oral herpes (commonly called "cold sores"), but it can be very serious and cause herpetic blindness and encephalitis, and even be lethal in some cases. The virus can persist throughout life in the body of its host. So far, no treatment can eliminate the virus and no vaccine has proven effective in controlling herpes infections. HSV-1 has a double-stranded DNA genome embedded in an icosahedral capsid surrounded by a lipid envelope. Thirteen viral glycoproteins are located in the envelope and are known or believed to play different roles in different stages of the viral replication cycle, including attachment, entry, assembly, and viral propagation. Among these envelope glycoproteins, glycoprotein M (gM) is the only nonessential glycoprotein but is conserved in all the herpesviridae family. Recently, the homologue of gM in Pseudorabies virus (PRV), another herpesvirus, has been implicated in the final phase of assembly (e.g. the cytoplasmic envelopment) at the trans-Golgi network (TGN) ([1]). However, it was suggested that this does not apply to HSV-1 ([2]). Moreover, unlike its TGN localization in transfected cells, HSV-1 gM localizes to the nuclear membrane and on the perinuclear virions during infection. The objective of the project presented here was to clarify the relationship of the location and function of HSV-1 gM in the context of an infection. In the results reported here, we first describe a specific and active mechanism of nuclear targeting of HSV-1 gM. In early phase of infection, gM is targeted to the nuclear membrane in a virus dependent manner. This occurs before the known reorganization of the TGN induced by the virus and before gM enters the secretory pathway. This active and specific nuclear targeting of gM seemingly does not depend on the functional interaction partners proposed in the literature. These data suggest that nuclear gM could have a new role independent of that in the final envelopment in the cytoplasm. In the second part of the work presented here, we focused iv our efforts on the role of gM in virus assembly in the late phase of infection and define an important functional domain within gM. Our results highlight the importance of the carboxyl-terminal domain of gM in the intracellular transport of gM from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to Golgi apparatus, in the cytoplasmic envelopment of the capsids and the intercellular spread of the virus. Hence, gM ER export was completely compromised in transfected cells after deletion of its C-terminal tail. Deletion of the gM cytoplasmic tail in mutant viruses resulted in a slight reduction in viral titer and plaque size. The analysis of these mutants by electron microscopy showed an accumulation of nucleocapsids without envelope in the cytoplasm compared to wild-type virus. Interestingly, this phenotype is apparent in BHK cells but not in 143B cells, hinting that the importance of gM may be cell type specific. Finally, screening of interaction partners of C-terminal domain of gM identified by the two-hybrid system allowed us to propose several interesting candidates that may regulate the function of gM in the virus morphogenesis and propagation.

A proteína quinase dependente de RNA (PKR) é uma molécula sentinela ativada em situações de estresse celular, incluindo infecções virais. A ativação de PKR por meio de sua fosforilação aciona cascatas de sinalização intracelular envolvidas em respostas inflamatórias e inibição da síntese protéica. Dados prévios do nosso laboratório sugerem que PKR está envolvida na hiperalgesia térmica de origem inflamatória. No presente estudo, foi investigado o papel da PKR na hiperalgesia térmica induzida pelo vírus da herpes simples tipo 1 (HSV1), durante as fases herpética e pós-herpética, combinando métodos comportamentais, genéticos, farmacológicos e moleculares. Camundongos C57bl/6, PKR+/+ e PKR-/- machos foram inoculados com HSV1. Os grupos controle foram inoculados com HSV1 inativo. Alodínia mecânica e hiperalgesia térmica foram monitoradas antes da inoculação do vírus e 8, 14, 21 e 28 dias após a inoculação. A curva dose e temporesposta e o teste da capsaicina foram realizados no 8º e 21º dias após a inoculação do vírus. Também nos períodos herpético e pós-herpético, foi investigado o perfil de expressão de proteínas envolvidas nas vias de sinalização de PKR (PKR, eIF2?, PACT, IKK e PP2A?), assim como o efeito da inibição de PKR pelo monitoramento da fosforilação de PKR, IKK?/?, P38, JNK, ERK1,2 e STAT3, e expressão de CaMKII? e TRPV1 nos GRD (L3-L6) ipsilateralmente à pata inoculada. Alodínia mecânica e hiperalgesia térmica ficaram evidentes até 28 dias após a inoculação. Camundongos PKR-/- desenvolveram alodínia mecânica, mas não hiperalgesia térmica, quando comparados com animais PKR+/+. A inibição sistêmica de PKR reverteu a hiperalgesia térmica de modo tempo- e dose-dependente e preveniu o comportamento nocifensivo induzido por capsaicina, enquanto PKR-/- apresentaram resposta nocifensiva praticamente ausente em ambas as fases herpética e pósherpética. Houve aumento da expressão de PP2A? e da fosforilação de PKR, IKK?/? e eIF2?, durante os períodos herpético e pós-herpético, e de PACT na fase pósherpética. A inibição de PKR promoveu o aumento da fosforilação de P38 em ambas as fases, e redução da fosforilação de PLC?1 acompanhada do retorno da fosforilação de Akt e STAT3 ao nível do grupo controle e o aumento da expressão de Ca-MKII? na fase herpética. Já na fase pós-herpética, reduziu a fosforilação de JNK e Akt e a expressão de Ca-MKII?, retornou a fosforilação de ERK1,2, PLC?1 e STAT3 ao nível do grupo controle e aumentou a expressão de TRPV1. Nossos resultados indicam que a atividade de PKR desempenha papel essencial na hiperalgesia térmica induzida por infecção pelo HSV1 / Double stranded RNA-activated protein kinase (PKR) is a sentinel molecule activated by cellular stress conditions, including viral infections. PKR activation by phosphorylation triggers cascades involved in inflammatory response and protein synthesis suppression. Our previous data suggest that PKR is involved in the inflammatory thermal hyperalgesia. Here we investigated the role played by PKR on thermal hyperalgesia induced by herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1), during herpetic and post-herpetic phases, by combining behavioral, genetic, pharmacological, and molecular methods. Adult male C57bl/6, PKR+/+ and PKR-/- mice were inoculated with HSV-1. Control groups were inoculated with inactive (mock) HSV1. Mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia were monitored before virus inoculation and 8, 14, 21, and 28 days post-inoculation. The dose- and timeresponse curve and the capsaicin test were performed at 8th and 21st days post virus inoculation. Also in the herpetic and post-herpetic periods, was investigated the expression profile of proteins involved in the PKR signaling pathways (PKR, eIF2?, PACT, IKK and PP2A?), and the effect of PKR inhibition by monitoring PKR, IKK?/?, P38, JNK, ERK1,2, and STAT3 phosphorylation, and Ca-MKII? and TRPV1 expression in the dorsal root ganglia (L3-L6) ipsilaterally to the inoculated paw. Mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia became evident until 28 days postinnoculation. PKR-/- mice developed mechanical allodynia but not thermal hyperalgesia, when compared with PKR+/+ mice. Systemic PKR inhibition reversed thermal hyperalgesia in a dose and time-dependent manner, and prevented the capsaicin-induced nocifensive behavior, whereas PKR-/- showed no nocifensive behavior almost absent in both herpetic and post-herpetic phases. There was increased expression of PP2A? and the phosphorylation of PKR, IKK?/?, and eIF2?, during herpetic and post-herpetic periods, and PACT in the post-herpetic phase. PKR inhibition increased P38 phosphorylation in both phases, and reduction of PLC?1 phosphorylation together with the return of the Akt and STAT3 phosphorylation to the control group level, and enhanced Ca-MKII? expression in the herpetic phase. At the post-herpetic phase, suppressed JNK and Akt, and Ca-MKII? expression returned ERK1,2, PLC?1 and STAT3 phosphorylation to control group level and increased TRPV1 expression. The data indicate that PKR activity plays an essential role in the HSV-1 infection-induced thermal hyperalgesia

No description available.

Le Virus Herpès Simplex de type 1 (HSV-1) est un agent infectieux qui cause l’herpès chez une grande proportion de la population mondiale. L’herpès est généralement considéré comme une maladie bénigne dont la forme la plus commune est l'herpès labial (communément appelé « bouton de fièvre »), mais elle peut se révéler très sérieuse et causer la cécité et l’encéphalite, voir létale dans certain cas. Le virus persiste toute la vie dans le corps de son hôte. Jusqu'à présent, aucun traitement ne peut éliminer le virus et aucun vaccin n’a été prouvé efficace pour contrôler l’infection herpétique. HSV-1 est un virus avec un génome d’ADN bicaténaire contenu dans une capside icosaèdrale entourée d’une enveloppe lipidique. Treize glycoprotéines virales se trouvent dans cette enveloppe et sont connues ou supposées jouer des rôles distincts dans différentes étapes du cycle de réplication viral, incluant l'attachement, l'entrée, l’assemblage, et la propagation des virus. La glycoprotéine M (gM) qui figure parmi ces glycoprotéines d’enveloppe, est la seule glycoprotéine non essentielle mais est conservée dans toute la famille herpesviridae. Récemment, l’homologue de gM dans le Pseudorabies virus (PRV), un autre herpesvirus, a été impliqué dans la phase finale de l’assemblage (i.e. l’enveloppement cytoplasmique) au niveau du réseau trans-Golgi (TGN) en reconnaissant spécifiquement des protéines tégumentaires et d’autres glycoprotéines d’enveloppe ([1]). Toutefois, il a été proposé que cette hypothèse ne s’applique pas pour le HSV-1 ([2]). De plus, contrairement à la localisation au TGN dans les cellules transfectées, HSV-1 gM se localise dans la membrane nucléaire et sur les virions périnucléaires durant une infection. L’objectif du projet présenté ici était d’éclaircir la relation de la localisation et la fonction de HSV-1 gM dans le contexte d’une infection. Dans les résultats rapportés ici, nous décrivons tout abord un mécanisme spécifique de ciblage nucléaire de HSV-1 gM. En phase précoce d’une infection, gM est ciblée à la membrane nucléaire d'une manière virus ii dépendante. Cela se produit avant la réorganisation du TGN normalement induite par l’infection et avant que gM n’entre dans la voie de sécrétion. Ce ciblage nucléaire actif et spécifique de gM ne semble pas dépendre des plusieurs des partenaires d’interaction proposés dans la littérature. Ces données suggèrent que la forme nucléaire de gM pourrait avoir un nouveau rôle indépendant de l’enveloppement final dans le cytoplasme. Dans la deuxième partie du travail présenté ici, nous avons concentré nos efforts sur le rôle de gM dans l’assemblage du virus en phase tardive de l’infection et en identifiant un domaine critique de gM. Nos résultats mettent en valeur l’importance du domaine carboxyl-terminal cytoplasmique de gM dans le transport de gM du réticulum endoplasmique (RE) à l’appareil de Golgi, dans l’enveloppement cytoplasmique et la propagation intercellulaire du virus. Ainsi, l’export du RE de gM a été complètement compromis dans les cellules transfectées exprimant un mutant de gM dépourvu de sa région C-terminale. La délétion la queue cytoplasmique de gM cause une réduction légère du titre viral et de la taille des plaques. L'analyse de ces mutants par microscopie électronique a démontré une accumulation des nucléocapsides sans enveloppe dans le cytoplasme par rapport aux virus de type sauvage. Étrangement, ce phénotype était apparent dans les cellules BHK mais absent dans les cellules 143B, suggérant que la fonction de gM dépende du type cellulaire. Finalement, le criblage de partenaires d’interaction du domaine C-terminal de gM identifiés par le système de double-hybride nous a permis de proposer plusieurs candidats susceptibles de réguler la fonction de gM dans la morphogénèse et la propagation de virus. / Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 (HSV-1) is an infectious agent causing herpes, which affects a large population worldwide. Herpes is generally considered a benign disease whose most common form is oral herpes (commonly called "cold sores"), but it can be very serious and cause herpetic blindness and encephalitis, and even be lethal in some cases. The virus can persist throughout life in the body of its host. So far, no treatment can eliminate the virus and no vaccine has proven effective in controlling herpes infections. HSV-1 has a double-stranded DNA genome embedded in an icosahedral capsid surrounded by a lipid envelope. Thirteen viral glycoproteins are located in the envelope and are known or believed to play different roles in different stages of the viral replication cycle, including attachment, entry, assembly, and viral propagation. Among these envelope glycoproteins, glycoprotein M (gM) is the only nonessential glycoprotein but is conserved in all the herpesviridae family. Recently, the homologue of gM in Pseudorabies virus (PRV), another herpesvirus, has been implicated in the final phase of assembly (e.g. the cytoplasmic envelopment) at the trans-Golgi network (TGN) ([1]). However, it was suggested that this does not apply to HSV-1 ([2]). Moreover, unlike its TGN localization in transfected cells, HSV-1 gM localizes to the nuclear membrane and on the perinuclear virions during infection. The objective of the project presented here was to clarify the relationship of the location and function of HSV-1 gM in the context of an infection. In the results reported here, we first describe a specific and active mechanism of nuclear targeting of HSV-1 gM. In early phase of infection, gM is targeted to the nuclear membrane in a virus dependent manner. This occurs before the known reorganization of the TGN induced by the virus and before gM enters the secretory pathway. This active and specific nuclear targeting of gM seemingly does not depend on the functional interaction partners proposed in the literature. These data suggest that nuclear gM could have a new role independent of that in the final envelopment in the cytoplasm. In the second part of the work presented here, we focused iv our efforts on the role of gM in virus assembly in the late phase of infection and define an important functional domain within gM. Our results highlight the importance of the carboxyl-terminal domain of gM in the intracellular transport of gM from endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to Golgi apparatus, in the cytoplasmic envelopment of the capsids and the intercellular spread of the virus. Hence, gM ER export was completely compromised in transfected cells after deletion of its C-terminal tail. Deletion of the gM cytoplasmic tail in mutant viruses resulted in a slight reduction in viral titer and plaque size. The analysis of these mutants by electron microscopy showed an accumulation of nucleocapsids without envelope in the cytoplasm compared to wild-type virus. Interestingly, this phenotype is apparent in BHK cells but not in 143B cells, hinting that the importance of gM may be cell type specific. Finally, screening of interaction partners of C-terminal domain of gM identified by the two-hybrid system allowed us to propose several interesting candidates that may regulate the function of gM in the virus morphogenesis and propagation.

A proteína quinase dependente de RNA (PKR) é uma molécula sentinela ativada em situações de estresse celular, incluindo infecções virais. A ativação de PKR por meio de sua fosforilação aciona cascatas de sinalização intracelular envolvidas em respostas inflamatórias e inibição da síntese protéica. Dados prévios do nosso laboratório sugerem que PKR está envolvida na hiperalgesia térmica de origem inflamatória. No presente estudo, foi investigado o papel da PKR na hiperalgesia térmica induzida pelo vírus da herpes simples tipo 1 (HSV1), durante as fases herpética e pós-herpética, combinando métodos comportamentais, genéticos, farmacológicos e moleculares. Camundongos C57bl/6, PKR+/+ e PKR-/- machos foram inoculados com HSV1. Os grupos controle foram inoculados com HSV1 inativo. Alodínia mecânica e hiperalgesia térmica foram monitoradas antes da inoculação do vírus e 8, 14, 21 e 28 dias após a inoculação. A curva dose e temporesposta e o teste da capsaicina foram realizados no 8º e 21º dias após a inoculação do vírus. Também nos períodos herpético e pós-herpético, foi investigado o perfil de expressão de proteínas envolvidas nas vias de sinalização de PKR (PKR, eIF2?, PACT, IKK e PP2A?), assim como o efeito da inibição de PKR pelo monitoramento da fosforilação de PKR, IKK?/?, P38, JNK, ERK1,2 e STAT3, e expressão de CaMKII? e TRPV1 nos GRD (L3-L6) ipsilateralmente à pata inoculada. Alodínia mecânica e hiperalgesia térmica ficaram evidentes até 28 dias após a inoculação. Camundongos PKR-/- desenvolveram alodínia mecânica, mas não hiperalgesia térmica, quando comparados com animais PKR+/+. A inibição sistêmica de PKR reverteu a hiperalgesia térmica de modo tempo- e dose-dependente e preveniu o comportamento nocifensivo induzido por capsaicina, enquanto PKR-/- apresentaram resposta nocifensiva praticamente ausente em ambas as fases herpética e pósherpética. Houve aumento da expressão de PP2A? e da fosforilação de PKR, IKK?/? e eIF2?, durante os períodos herpético e pós-herpético, e de PACT na fase pósherpética. A inibição de PKR promoveu o aumento da fosforilação de P38 em ambas as fases, e redução da fosforilação de PLC?1 acompanhada do retorno da fosforilação de Akt e STAT3 ao nível do grupo controle e o aumento da expressão de Ca-MKII? na fase herpética. Já na fase pós-herpética, reduziu a fosforilação de JNK e Akt e a expressão de Ca-MKII?, retornou a fosforilação de ERK1,2, PLC?1 e STAT3 ao nível do grupo controle e aumentou a expressão de TRPV1. Nossos resultados indicam que a atividade de PKR desempenha papel essencial na hiperalgesia térmica induzida por infecção pelo HSV1 / Double stranded RNA-activated protein kinase (PKR) is a sentinel molecule activated by cellular stress conditions, including viral infections. PKR activation by phosphorylation triggers cascades involved in inflammatory response and protein synthesis suppression. Our previous data suggest that PKR is involved in the inflammatory thermal hyperalgesia. Here we investigated the role played by PKR on thermal hyperalgesia induced by herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1), during herpetic and post-herpetic phases, by combining behavioral, genetic, pharmacological, and molecular methods. Adult male C57bl/6, PKR+/+ and PKR-/- mice were inoculated with HSV-1. Control groups were inoculated with inactive (mock) HSV1. Mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia were monitored before virus inoculation and 8, 14, 21, and 28 days post-inoculation. The dose- and timeresponse curve and the capsaicin test were performed at 8th and 21st days post virus inoculation. Also in the herpetic and post-herpetic periods, was investigated the expression profile of proteins involved in the PKR signaling pathways (PKR, eIF2?, PACT, IKK and PP2A?), and the effect of PKR inhibition by monitoring PKR, IKK?/?, P38, JNK, ERK1,2, and STAT3 phosphorylation, and Ca-MKII? and TRPV1 expression in the dorsal root ganglia (L3-L6) ipsilaterally to the inoculated paw. Mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia became evident until 28 days postinnoculation. PKR-/- mice developed mechanical allodynia but not thermal hyperalgesia, when compared with PKR+/+ mice. Systemic PKR inhibition reversed thermal hyperalgesia in a dose and time-dependent manner, and prevented the capsaicin-induced nocifensive behavior, whereas PKR-/- showed no nocifensive behavior almost absent in both herpetic and post-herpetic phases. There was increased expression of PP2A? and the phosphorylation of PKR, IKK?/?, and eIF2?, during herpetic and post-herpetic periods, and PACT in the post-herpetic phase. PKR inhibition increased P38 phosphorylation in both phases, and reduction of PLC?1 phosphorylation together with the return of the Akt and STAT3 phosphorylation to the control group level, and enhanced Ca-MKII? expression in the herpetic phase. At the post-herpetic phase, suppressed JNK and Akt, and Ca-MKII? expression returned ERK1,2, PLC?1 and STAT3 phosphorylation to control group level and increased TRPV1 expression. The data indicate that PKR activity plays an essential role in the HSV-1 infection-induced thermal hyperalgesia

Le virus de l'herpès simplex de type 1 (VHS-1) est l'un des agents pathogènes humains les plus anciens et les plus efficaces. On estime que 3.7 milliards de personnes dans le monde vivent avec le VHS-1. Le virus persiste à l'état latent dans les neurones sensoriels, réapparaissant occasionnellement sous la forme d'une infection lytique qui endommage l'épithélium. Même si le VHS-1 provoque une maladie bénigne connue sous le nom de feu sauvage dans la majorité des cas, l'infection peut entraîner des conséquences catastrophiques telles que l'encéphalite et la kératite chez les personnes immunodéprimées les nouveau-nés. Compte tenu de la présence généralisée des infections à VHS-1, le virus représente une menace potentielle pour le système de santé. Le génome à ADN du VHS-1 est protégé par une cage protéique appelée capside. Bien que l'assemblage de la capside du VHS-1 et l'encapsidation du génome aient lieu à l'intérieur du noyau de l'hôte, les étapes finales de la maturation doivent être achevées dans le cytoplasme. Ainsi, pour la sortie du noyau, le virus a développé un mécanisme connu sous le nom d’enveloppement-déenveloppement-réenveloppement. La première étape de ce processus est principalement régulée par le complexe de sortie nucléaire (pUL31 et pUL34) et entraîne le bourgeonnement de la capside alors enveloppée dans l'espace périnucléaire. Par la suite, le déenveloppement de ces capsides périnucléaires et leur libération dans le cytoplasme seraient largement modulés par la kinase virale pUs3. Ce processus est sélectif, car les capsides remplies d'ADN (capsides C) sortent préférentiellement du noyau au détriment des intermédiaires viraux sans génome (capsides A et B). Cependant, nous ne savons pas pourquoi les capsides C sont favorisées lors de ce processus. En aval, le virus mûrit, recrute de nombreuses protéines puis acquiert une enveloppe à partir d'un compartiment cytoplasmique. Il sort ensuite de la cellule sous forme de virions enveloppés matures. Outre les facteurs viraux mentionnés et quelques protéines hôtes, l'implication de nombreuses autres protéines virales et cellulaires dans cette voie n'a pas été entièrement caractérisée. Pour élucider davantage ce processus de sélection de la capside C, nous avons profité de l'analyse MS/MS des capsides nucléaires du VHS-1 pour définir les facteurs hôtes et viraux spécifiques à chaque intermédiaire de capside nucléaire (Chapitre 2; Article 1). Nous avons trouvé deux protéines virales (pUL42 et pUL46) et sept facteurs de l'hôte (glycogène synthase, quatre protéines différentes liées à la kératine, fibronectine 1 et PCBP1) qui étaient spécifiques des capsides C matures. Fait intéressant, toutes ces protéines semblent posséder des fonctions qui ont le potentiel de médier la sortie nucléaire préférentielle des capsides C. Par conséquent, l'analyse fonctionnelle future de ces protéines pourrait nous fournir des informations inestimables sur la sortie nucléaire actuellement énigmatique des capsides du VHS-1. Les travaux en cours d'un collègue de laboratoire avec lequel je collabore impliquent PCBP1 en tant que modulateur de la sortie nucléaire (mémoire de Mackenzie Thornbury). Nous nous sommes ensuite concentrés sur un ensemble de données protéomiques déjà existantes des virions extracellulaires matures, qui a identifié jusqu'à 49 protéines hôtes incorporées dans le virus, y compris une hélicase à ARN humaine appelée DDX3X qui s'est avérée être un modulateur actif de la propagation virale (Chapitre 2; Article 2). Nous avons remarqué que cette protéine se déplace vers le noyau tard lors de l'infection, coïncidant avec la majeure partie de la sortie nucléaire virale. Par conséquent, nous avons émis l'hypothèse que DDX3X serait impliqué dans la sortie nucléaire virale. Nous avons découvert que, tardivement au cours de l'infection, pUL31 interagit avec DDX3X au niveau du noyau. Nous avons également constaté que DDX3X stimule de grandes agrégations de capsides virales matures dans la périphérie nucléaire. Fait intéressant, la redirection de DDX3X vers le bord nucléaire dépend de la présence de la machinerie de sortie nucléaire virale (pUL31, pUL34 et pUs3) et de capsides matures. Enfin, nos données ont montré qu'en l'absence de DDX3X, les capsides C s'accumulent entre les deux membranes nucléaires, probablement à la suite d'une incorporation inefficace de pUs3 au site de sortie. Ces résultats ont élucidé une nouvelle fonction de DDX3X et pourraient ouvrir de nouvelles voies passionnantes de recherche pour développement d’antiviraux en ciblant cette hélicase à ARN cellulaire. / Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) is one of the oldest and most successful human pathogens. It is estimated that 3.7 billion people worldwide are living with HSV-1. The virus latently persists in sensory neurons, occasionally recurring as a lytic infection which damages the connected epithelium. Even though HSV-1 causes a mild disease known as the cold sore in majority of cases, the infection can have catastrophic consequences such as encephalitis and keratitis in immunocompromised individuals, newborns and, more rarely, in immune competent adults. Considering the widespread presence of HSV-1 infections, the virus poses a potential threat to the healthcare system. The DNA genome of HSV-1 is protected by a protein cage called a capsid. Although HSV-1 capsid assembly and genome packaging take place inside the host nucleus, the final steps of maturation must be completed inside the cytoplasm. Since the large diameter of these viral capsids (~125 nm) far exceeds the 30 nm cut-off of the nuclear pore complex, the virus has evolved a mechanism known as envelopment-deenvelopmentreenvelopment. The first step of this complex process is mainly regulated by the components of the nuclear egress complex (pUL31 and pUL34) and results in the budding of enveloped capsid into the perinuclear space. Subsequently, deenvelopment of these perinuclear capsids and their release into the cytoplasm is thought to be largely modulated by the viral kinase pUs3. This process is selective as DNA-filled capsids (C-capsids) preferentially exit the nucleus compared to genome-free viral intermediates (A- and Bcapsids). However, it is unclear how C-capsids are preferentially selected for the nuclear egress. Further downstream, the virus matures and recruit numerous proteins onto the viral capsids and acquire an envelope from a cytoplasmic compartment. It then exits the cell as mature enveloped virions. Apart from the mentioned viral factors and a handful of host proteins, implication of many other viral and cellular proteins in this pathway have not been fully characterized. To further resolve this process of C-capsid selection, we took advantage of MS/MS analysis of HSV-1 nuclear capsids to define host and viral factors specific to each nuclear capsid intermediate (Chapter 2; Article 1). We found two viral proteins (pUL42 and pUL46) and seven host factors (glycogen synthase, four different keratin-related proteins, fibronectin 1, and PCBP1) that were specific to mature C-capsids. Interestingly, all these proteins seem to possess functions that have the potential to mediate the preferential nuclear exit of C-capsids. Therefore, future functional analysis of these proteins might provide us with invaluable insights into the currently enigmatic nuclear egress of HSV-1 capsids. Ongoing work by a lab colleague with which I collaborate implicates PCBP1 as a modulator of nuclear egress (memoir of Mackenzie Thornbury). We then focused on an existing proteomics data set of mature extracellular virions, which revealed 49 virus-incorporated host proteins, including a human RNA helicase called DDX3X that we found to be an active modulator of viral propagation (Chapter 2; Article 2). We observed that DDX3X relocates to the nuclear rim late during infection, coinciding with the bulk of viral nuclear egress, and leading us to hypothesize that DDX3X is involved in the process. We discovered that, late during the infection, pUL31 interacts with DDX3X at the nuclear rim. We also found that DDX3X stimulates large aggregations of mature viral capsids in the nuclear periphery. Unexpectedly, redirection of DDX3X to the nuclear rim was dependent on the presence of the viral nuclear egress machinery (pUL31, pUL34 and pUs3) and mature capsids. Lastly, our data showed that in the absence of DDX3X, C-capsids accumulate in the perinuclear space, likely as the result of inefficient incorporation of pUs3 to the site of egress. These results have elucidated a novel function for DDX3X and may open new and exciting paths to produce antivirals by targeting this cellular RNA helicase.