abstract: My dissertation contributes to a body of knowledge useful for understanding the evolution of subsistence economies based on agriculture from those based on hunting and gathering, as well as the development of formal rules and norms of territorial ownership in hunter-gatherer societies. My research specifically combines simple formal and conceptual models with the empirical analysis of large ethnographic and environmental data sets to study feedback processes in coupled forager-resource systems. I use the formal and conceptual models of forager-resource systems as tools that aid in the development of two alternative arguments that may explain the adoption of food production and formal territorial ownership among hunter-gatherers. I call these arguments the Uncertainty Reduction Hypothesis and the Social Opportunity Hypothesis. Based on the logic of these arguments, I develop expectations for patterns of food production and formal territorial ownership documented in the ethnographic record of hunter-gatherer societies and evaluate these expectations with large ethnographic and environmental data sets. My analysis suggests that the Uncertainty Reduction Hypothesis is more consistent with the data than the Social Opportunity Hypothesis. Overall, my approach combines the intellectual frameworks of evolutionary ecology and resilience thinking. The result is a theory of subsistence change that integrates elements of three classic models of economic development with deep intellectual roots in human ecology: The Malthusian, Boserupian and Weberian models. A final take home message of my study is that evolutionary ecology and resilience thinking are complementary frameworks for archaeologists who study the transition from hunting and gathering to farming. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Anthropology 2014

A arqueologia do Estado de São Paulo é um tema ainda pouco explorado nas pesquisas acadêmicas. Tal negligência pode ser justificada tanto pela constante transformação da paisagem quanto pelo próprio desconhecimento de seu alto potencial informativo. Essa dissertação tráz resultados inéditos para dois sítios localizados na região de Rio Claro, porção centro-leste do estado. Foram trabalhados os sítios: Abrigo do Alvo - que como o próprio nome sugere encontra-se em contexto abrigado - com duas cronologias bem estabelecidas, sendo a ocupação mais recente em torno de 1.170 cal AP e a mais antiga em 7.500 cal AP; e o Bastos - sítio a céu aberto - com a idade mais recente em 7.650 cal AP e a mais antiga em 12.640 cal AP. O objetivo da pesquisa foi o de caracterizar o conjunto artefatual dos dois sítios considerando os materiais líticos associados apenas à datação do Holoceno Médio, tendo como referencial teórico o conceito de Cadeia Operatória. Os resultados, quando comparados, mostram que esses grupos caçadores-coletores que habitaram o interior paulista no mesmo período, não compartilhavam características tecnológicas em comum, indicando grupos culturalmente distintos. / The archaeology of São Paulo State is a subject not fully explored in academic research. Such state of the art can be justified both by the constant transformation of the landscape and by the lack of knowledge of its high information potential. This dissertation brings new data from the Rio Claro region, central-eastern portion of the state. Two sites have been worked: Alvo Rockshelter with two well established occupations, the most recent around 1,170 cal AP and the oldest around 7,500 cal AP; and Bastos - am open air site - with the most recent chronology at 7,650 cal AP and the oldest at 12,640 cal AP. The aim of this research was to characterize the assemblages of the two sites considering the lithic materials dated from the middle Holocene, having as theoretical reference the concept of Châine Opératoire. The results, when compared, show that these hunter-gatherer groups that inhabited the interior of São Paulo in the same period did not share common technological characteristics, indicating culturally distinct groups.

Está dissertação apresenta uma análise de uma coleção de líticos lascados recuperados no ano de 1999 pelo Laboratório de Estudos e Pesquisas Arqueológicas, na região Oeste do Rio Grande do Sul, Quaraí. O estudo deu ênfase para a perspectiva tecnológica e para o reconhecimento gestual da indústria lítica. Com isso, percebe-se a grande variabilidade que existe entre os plano-convexos e todas as suas estratégias de reciclagem. Também identificamos os sistemas de debitage e os métodos de lascamento dos núcleos. Para os instrumentos, criamos a hipótese de seus funcionamentos, suas preensões e suas ações transformativas a fim de entender este esquema dentro de um contexto regional e assim questionar as indústrias Uruguaias Catalanense e Quaraiense. Da mesma forma, testamos o modelo locacional criado por Milder (2000) (UNDR) dentro da área por nós estabelecida, como Rincão do Inferno e, assim, usamos as prerrogativas do fator geo como referência fundamental e indispensável para a pesquisa arqueológica. / This dissertation presents an analysis of chipped lithic that were recovered in 1999 by the laboratory of Archeological Researches and Studies, in the West Region of Rio Grande do Sul State, Quaraí. The study aimed mainly at the technological perspective and at the gestural recognition of lithic industry. Considering it, there is a great variability that can be perceived in relation to the plano-convex and all their recycling strategies. Debitage systems and nucleus chipper methods were identified. To the instruments, it was created a hypothesis to their working systems, their prehensions and their transformative actions in order to understand their methods inside a regional context and, then, question Catalense Uruguayan and Quaraiense industries. In the same way, it was tested the locating models created by Milder (UNDR) inside the area established for the study, as Rincão do Inferno and, then, it was used the geo factor prerogatives as a ultimate and indispensable factor to the archeological researches.

O estudo aqui proposto visa sistematizar os dados arqueológicos e etnográficos sobre sociedades de caçadores-coletores da região Amazônica, bem como os dados paleoambientais dessa mesma região, para testar e refinar modelos sobre a colonização da floresta amazônica por sociedades baseadas em uma economia de forrageiro. Este trabalho também pretende contribuir com novos dados arqueológicos fundamentados em estudos recentes na região de Carajás no estado do Pará. Atenção especial é dada ao material lítico, uma vez que essa é a evidência arqueológica mais duradoura e, portanto, a mais abundante relacionada às sociedades de caçadores-coletores da Amazônia. A viabilidade de uma ocupação humana em áreas de floresta tropical baseada em uma economia de forrageiro tem sido questionada segundo uma perspectiva de fatores limitantes, como ausência de proteína (Lathrap, 1968) ou carboidratos (Bailey, 1989). Estudos etnográficos e ecológicos na região Amazônica têm demonstrado que as generalizações feitas no passado e a limitação ambiental da floresta não procedem. Apesar disso, e do fato de termos presenciado nos últimos anos um crescente número de pesquisas na região voltadas especificamente para a questão da colonização Neotrópical por sociedades de caçadores-coletores, com geração de datações que indicam uma ocupação bem antiga, durante o Pleistoceno final e Holoceno inicial, ainda temos que gerar dados empíricos confiáveis. Além disso, devemos refinar esses modelos para que novos estudos, tanto do ponto de vista teórico, como do ponto de vista empírico, sejam aceitos pelo crivo acadêmico. / The present study is a systematization of archaeological and ethnographic data on Amazonian hunter-gatherers societies, as well as a survey of paleoenvironmental studies from the same region with the aim to test and refine models that explain the colonization of Amazon forest by societies based on foraging economy. This work also contributes to new archaeological data based on recent research in Carajás region, Pará state. Especial attention is given to lithic material, which is the most durable archaeological evidence, therefore, the most abundant cultural remain associated with Amazonian hunter-gatherer societies. The viability of human occupation in tropical forest regions based on a foraging economy has been challenged from an environmental limiting-factor perspective such as low accessibility of protein (Lathrap, 1968) or carbohydrate (Bailey, 1989) for human foragers. Ethnographic and ecological studies in the Amazon region have demonstrated that past generalizations and environmental limitations of tropical forest don't proceed. Despite that, and the fact that in the past few years we have witnessed a growing number of research in the area focused on the question of hunter-gatherers colonization of the neotropics, with the generation of a chronology that indicates the antiquity of human occupation, dating back to the terminal Pleistocene, and early Holocene, we still have to generate more robust empirical data. Furthermore, we need to refine our models, theoretically and empirically, so that the new studies are accepted by the scientific community.

Over the past five decades, archaeologists have proposed a wide range of methods for the study of spatial organization within hunter-gatherer sites. Many of these methods sought to identify the spatial location of activities based on patterns of behavior observed in ethnographic contexts. While this resulted in productive observations at certain sites, many of these methods were tailored to specific situations and thus could not be applied to a wide range of sites. For example, open-air sites rarely contain preserved bone or features, such as hearths, which were central components to identifying characteristics of site structure. In addition, many of these methods often did not take into consideration the temporal dynamics of the occupation, i.e., that many sites were formed through subsequent occupations of differing duration. This paper proposes the use of two related methods that assume many assemblages are the result of more than one occupation. The methods target the distribution of lithic artifacts, the most ubiquitously preserved of archaeological materials, and accounts for the potential that the final resting place of artifacts was the result of both intentional and unintentional movement by humans and a host of biological and geological processes. The main goal of this paper is to use an understanding of how these processes influenced the formation of site structure to estimate the relative number and duration of occupations for each site in the sample. These new methods will be presented and explained through the study of seven open-air Middle Paleolithic sites in France but are applicable to a wide range of hunter-gatherer sites.

Summary This essay examines how Joseph Conrad's novella Heart of Darkness and Hunter S. Thompson's novel The Rum Diary portray´s the effects of colonialism and neocolonialism in Africa and Puerto Rico. Using postcolonial theory, the essay shows how Conrad's and Thompson´s complex images of the Europeans and Africans, Westerners and Puertoricans stand in contrast to orientalistic and racist images of the colonial natives. The thesis discusses responsibility and guiltissues in the colonial states and analyses how Conrad and Thompson raise questions about these topics when they chose to portray the suffering among the colonial natives. Furthermore, the essay discusses how Conrad's and Thompson's many images of violence can be seen as images of a brutal reality carried out in countries marked by colonialism. Based on intertextual literary theory, and in the light of the literary journalistic genre ""new journalism"", in which Thompson was active, the essay markes out The Rum Diary's intertextual references to Conrad's Heart of Darkness. The essay argue that The Rum Diary's intertextual references to Heart of Darkness indicate to the reader that the novel belongs to a certain genre, and by this; link the novel to a literary system, codes and traditions already constructed by Conrad. The Rum Diay, that portrays the neocolonial era in the 1950's in the former U.S's colony Puerto Rico, is therefore to be understood in the light of Conrad's Heart of Darkness, even though it portrays an earlier era of colonialism. / Sammanfattning Sammanfattningsvis behandlar uppsatsen skildringar av kolonialismens och neokolonialismens verkningar i Joseph Conrads novell Heart of Darkness och i Hunter S. Thompsons roman The Rum Diary. Med utgångspunkt i den postkoloniala litteraturteorin och mot bakgrund av den historiska bilden av den koloniala världen granskar uppsatsen bland annat hur Conrad och Thompson valde att skildra kolonialistiska och neokolonialistiska maktstrukturer och samhälleliga missförhållanden. Uppsatsen granskar även kolonialismens orientalistiska och rasistiska bild av utomeuropén kontrasterat de respektive verkens komplexa skildringar av européer och afrikaner, västerlänningar och puertoricaner. Uppsatsen berör även frågan om västvärldens ansvar och skuld inför koloniernas och de forna koloniernas inhemska problematik samt belyser Conrad och Thompson framställningar av lokalbefolkningens lidanden. Vidare granskar uppsatsen våldets betydelse för kolonialismens etablering och hur de respektive verkens våldsskildringar kan ses berätta om en våldspräglad realitet i de länder som är märkta av kolonialismens verkningar. Uppsatsen belyser också The Rum Diarys litterära beröringspunkter och direkta referenser till Conrads Heart of Darkness med utgångspunkt i den intertextuella litteraturteorin och mot bakgrund av den litterära journalistiska genren ”"new journalism"” inom vilken Thompson var verksam i. Uppsatsen argumenterar för att Thompsons avsikt med de intertextuella referenserna var att indikera för läsaren om verkets genre, textens mening och sammanlänka det egna verket med det system, de koder och den tradition som Conrad sedan tidigare utstakat. Uppsatsen avslutats med ett intertextuellt perspektiv som med flera exempel visar hur The Rum Diary refererar till Conrads litterära produktion.

The purpose of this thesis is to examine whether fishing in southern Scandinavia may have created conditions for a sedentary lifestyle. This would contradict the current image of the Early mesolithic as dependent on hunting subsistence. The image of Early mesolithic as dependent on hunting subsistence is in a dichotomous relationship in contrast to Late mesolithic fishing subsistence, which leads to fishing amongst Early mesolithic cultures being overlooked. A dichotomous relationship has also appeared between the mesolithic and neolithic way of life, where the mesolithic attributes as nomadic hunter-gatherers are in contrast to sedentary neolithic farmers. Underwater archaeology has not until recently focused on Early mesolithic settlement. Recent discoveries in the south-eastern Sweden can indicate that fishing would have been a more central part of the Early Mesolithic society than previously assumed.

This study is a collections-based project that employs approximately 1,300 projectile points to investigate behavioral response to the Younger Dryas in north Alabama (12,900 to 11,700 BP). I apply a version of the marginal value theorem to determine how changing resource structures caused changes in projectile point technology. I argue that changes in technology during the Younger Dryas were not conditioned by access or availability of lithic raw material. Instead, variation in technology is likely a response to changes in return rates from hunting and foraging. Further, the changes in hunting return rates correlate with changes in north Alabama forest structure, which were conditioned by the Younger Dryas. To this end, I argue that the sustained impact of the Younger Dryas, and subsequent Holocene warming, had an effect on the subsistence economies of hunter-gatherers living in northern Alabama during this time, which is exhibited by changes in projectile point technology.

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