O propósito deste trabalho é a modelagem experimental e estudo do controle do processo de hidroconformação de tubos. Assim, o trabalho visa o projeto e a construção de um dispositivo servo-controlado de hidroconformação de tubos com um sistema de controle digital. O trabalho compreende o projeto e a construção de um dispositivo a ser acoplado em uma prensa hidráulica, a instrumentação dos equipamentos usados e a implantação do sistema de controle automático do processo através de um computador PC e de placas de interface A/D e D/A. Os aplicativos de controle foram desenvolvidos em linguagem de alto nível no sistema operacional Windows. No projeto do aplicativo, inicialmente foram realizadas rotinas para testes do sistema em malha aberta. As demais rotinas são aquelas associadas às funções matemáticas do modelo fenomenológico do sistema de hidroconformação, aquelas destinadas ao controlador de malha fechada. O tipo de estratégia de controle a ser utilizada foi definida no decorrer do projeto e foi baseada em um modelo de processo não linear, linearizado em torno de cada ponto de operação. Para fins de obtenção do modelo nominal para o controlador, os atuadores e sensores tiveram suas dinâmicas desprezadas face a dinâmica do processo e suas curvas de processo foram levantadas experimentalmente. / This works aims is the experimental modeling of a tube hydroforming (THF) “T” branch, and de THF process automatic control study. Thus, the design and the construction of a servo-controlled hydraulic device for THF, with a automatic digital control system, is embedded in our objectives. Design and construction of device to append on a hydraulic press, implantation of the measurement equipment and implementation of the control system algorithms through a PC with I/O interface boards is necessary. Control algorithms were developed in Hi-level language for windows operating system. The application design was based on experimental initial tests performed with no feed-backing controlling mode. Routes related to phenomenological mathematical model of the THF process were validate against the literature database, and were devoted to the feed-backing controller mode. Control strategy to employ in final application was defined during the process calibration, based on the non-linear characteristics of the “T” branch THF. To obtain the final load path model sensors and cylinders had their dynamics neglected because the THF dynamic is very much higher, and had their behavior curves experimentally raised.

No description available.

No description available.

In der blechverarbeitenden Industrie ist in den letzten Jahrzehnten der zunehmende Einsatz organisch bandbeschichteter Bleche zu verzeichnen. Diese so genannten Coil Coating-Werkstoffe werden derzeit vorwiegend im Baubereich für Fassaden und Innenausstattungen, für Haushaltsgeräte und Unterhaltungselektronik sowie zunehmend in der Automobilindustrie eingesetzt. Neuerdings sind Coil Coating-Werkstoffe verfügbar, die aus vier Schichten bestehen und vor allem den ästhetischen Anforderungen der Automobilindustrie für den Außenhautbereich entsprechen. Sie sind eines von vielen Puzzleteilen zur Komplettierung des Gesamtbildes von zukünftigen modernen Fahrzeugkonzepten wie z.B. Modulbauweisen, weil sie die teure Stückbeschichtung bei der Produktion einsparen und somit durch Wegfall von Fertigungsstufen eine Kostenreduzierung erreicht werden kann. Beim Einsatz von neuen Coil Coating-Werkstoffen mit Schichtdicken bis 100 μm ist auf eine fertigungsgerechte Produktgestaltung zu achten. Die zum Fügen von Feinblechen etablierten thermischen Fügeverfahren sind aufgrund der Entstehung von Oberflächenschädigungen nicht anwendbar. Als ökonomische und technologische Fügealternative bietet sich hier das Durchsetzfügen oder Clinchen insbesondere mit der Unterstützung von Wirkmedien an. Jedoch bestehen erhebliche Kenntnisdefizite zum Clinchen organisch bandbeschichteter Feinbleche mit Gesamtschichtdicken größer als 30 μm. Handlungsbedarf resultiert aus den negativen Auswirkungen des Fügeprozesses auf die Beschichtungen und auf die qualitätsbestimmenden Eigenschaften der gefertigten Verbindung. Diese Arbeit soll einen Beitrag zur Erweiterung des Kenntnisstands für das schädigungsfreie Clinchen von organisch beschichteten Blechen leisten. Ziel ist es, ein Clinchverfahren zu entwickeln, das organisch endbeschichtetes Feinblech bei guter Verbindungsfestigkeit schädigungsfrei fügt. Hierzu sind folgende Punkte erarbeitet worden: -In einem ersten Schritt wurde der Stand der Technik zu Coil Coating-Werkstoffen und die Problemstellung beim Clinchen von vorbeschichteten Blechen. -Im nächsten Schritt sind als Ausgangssituation der Arbeit Referenzwerte zur Lackschädigung beim Clinchen von endlackierten Blechen mit konventionellen Clinchwerkzeugen erarbeitet worden. Es zeigt sich, dass mit konventionellen Clinchverfahren Verbindungen mit akzeptabler Festigkeit und guter ästhetischer Erscheinung nicht herstellbar sind. -Aufbauend auf den gewonnenen Erkenntnissen werden neue Ansätze zum schädigungsfreien Clinchen vorgestellt, die auf wirkmedienunterstützte Umformverfahren basieren. Der Schwerpunkt liegt auf der Reduzierung von lokalen Dehnungen und der Reibung während des Clinchens sowie auf der Verbesserung des Werkstoffflusses durch die Minimierung des Werkzeug-Werkstoffkontaktes. Die vorgestellten Lösungsansätze zu Änderungen an der Werkzeuggeometrie und am Clinchverfahren selbst durch den Einsatz von elastischen und flüssigen Wirkmedien werden begleitend mit der Finite-Elemente-Simulation überprüft. -In weiteren praktischen Untersuchungen an einer neu entwickelten Versuchsanlage sind die numerischen Ergebnisse verifiziert worden. Das Clinchen mit flüssigen Wirkmedien zeigt sich dabei als ein gut geeignetes Verfahren zum Fügen mit akzeptabler und deutlich reduzierter Lackschädigung bei guter Verbindungsfestigkeit. -Die Kenntnis von Dehnungszuständen und deren Vergleich mit den sichtbaren Schädigungen auf den Oberflächen ermöglichen die Erschließung der Vorteile aus der Kombination von hydraulischer Tiefung und dem mechanischen Stauchen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sind neue Lösungsansätze zum Clinchen von Coil Coating-Werkstoffen mit geringsten Oberflächenschädigungen unter Verwendung von Wirkmedien vorgestellt und erläutert worden. Die durchgeführten Untersuchungen zeigen eine Möglichkeit auf, Coil Coating-Werkstoffe schädigungsarm und prozesssicher zu fügen. Die Lösungsansätze und Erkenntnisse dieser Arbeit sollen die Generierung von neuen Perspektiven für die Anwendung von Coil Coating-Werkstoffen unterstützen. Das Ergebnis lässt erwarten, dass in Zukunft neue Schritte auf dem Weg zum Einsatz von endlackiertem getätigt werden können, weil ein sicheres und robustes Fügeverfahren für die Produktion zur Verfügung gestellt werden kann.

In der blechverarbeitenden Industrie ist in den letzten Jahrzehnten der zunehmende Einsatz organisch bandbeschichteter Bleche zu verzeichnen. Diese so genannten Coil Coating-Werkstoffe werden derzeit vorwiegend im Baubereich für Fassaden und Innenausstattungen, für Haushaltsgeräte und Unterhaltungselektronik sowie zunehmend in der Automobilindustrie eingesetzt. Neuerdings sind Coil Coating-Werkstoffe verfügbar, die aus vier Schichten bestehen und vor allem den ästhetischen Anforderungen der Automobilindustrie für den Außenhautbereich entsprechen. Sie sind eines von vielen Puzzleteilen zur Komplettierung des Gesamtbildes von zukünftigen modernen Fahrzeugkonzepten wie z.B. Modulbauweisen, weil sie die teure Stückbeschichtung bei der Produktion einsparen und somit durch Wegfall von Fertigungsstufen eine Kostenreduzierung erreicht werden kann. Beim Einsatz von neuen Coil Coating-Werkstoffen mit Schichtdicken bis 100 μm ist auf eine fertigungsgerechte Produktgestaltung zu achten. Die zum Fügen von Feinblechen etablierten thermischen Fügeverfahren sind aufgrund der Entstehung von Oberflächenschädigungen nicht anwendbar. Als ökonomische und technologische Fügealternative bietet sich hier das Durchsetzfügen oder Clinchen insbesondere mit der Unterstützung von Wirkmedien an. Jedoch bestehen erhebliche Kenntnisdefizite zum Clinchen organisch bandbeschichteter Feinbleche mit Gesamtschichtdicken größer als 30 μm. Handlungsbedarf resultiert aus den negativen Auswirkungen des Fügeprozesses auf die Beschichtungen und auf die qualitätsbestimmenden Eigenschaften der gefertigten Verbindung. Diese Arbeit soll einen Beitrag zur Erweiterung des Kenntnisstands für das schädigungsfreie Clinchen von organisch beschichteten Blechen leisten. Ziel ist es, ein Clinchverfahren zu entwickeln, das organisch endbeschichtetes Feinblech bei guter Verbindungsfestigkeit schädigungsfrei fügt. Hierzu sind folgende Punkte erarbeitet worden: -In einem ersten Schritt wurde der Stand der Technik zu Coil Coating-Werkstoffen und die Problemstellung beim Clinchen von vorbeschichteten Blechen. -Im nächsten Schritt sind als Ausgangssituation der Arbeit Referenzwerte zur Lackschädigung beim Clinchen von endlackierten Blechen mit konventionellen Clinchwerkzeugen erarbeitet worden. Es zeigt sich, dass mit konventionellen Clinchverfahren Verbindungen mit akzeptabler Festigkeit und guter ästhetischer Erscheinung nicht herstellbar sind. -Aufbauend auf den gewonnenen Erkenntnissen werden neue Ansätze zum schädigungsfreien Clinchen vorgestellt, die auf wirkmedienunterstützte Umformverfahren basieren. Der Schwerpunkt liegt auf der Reduzierung von lokalen Dehnungen und der Reibung während des Clinchens sowie auf der Verbesserung des Werkstoffflusses durch die Minimierung des Werkzeug-Werkstoffkontaktes. Die vorgestellten Lösungsansätze zu Änderungen an der Werkzeuggeometrie und am Clinchverfahren selbst durch den Einsatz von elastischen und flüssigen Wirkmedien werden begleitend mit der Finite-Elemente-Simulation überprüft. -In weiteren praktischen Untersuchungen an einer neu entwickelten Versuchsanlage sind die numerischen Ergebnisse verifiziert worden. Das Clinchen mit flüssigen Wirkmedien zeigt sich dabei als ein gut geeignetes Verfahren zum Fügen mit akzeptabler und deutlich reduzierter Lackschädigung bei guter Verbindungsfestigkeit. -Die Kenntnis von Dehnungszuständen und deren Vergleich mit den sichtbaren Schädigungen auf den Oberflächen ermöglichen die Erschließung der Vorteile aus der Kombination von hydraulischer Tiefung und dem mechanischen Stauchen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sind neue Lösungsansätze zum Clinchen von Coil Coating-Werkstoffen mit geringsten Oberflächenschädigungen unter Verwendung von Wirkmedien vorgestellt und erläutert worden. Die durchgeführten Untersuchungen zeigen eine Möglichkeit auf, Coil Coating-Werkstoffe schädigungsarm und prozesssicher zu fügen. Die Lösungsansätze und Erkenntnisse dieser Arbeit sollen die Generierung von neuen Perspektiven für die Anwendung von Coil Coating-Werkstoffen unterstützen. Das Ergebnis lässt erwarten, dass in Zukunft neue Schritte auf dem Weg zum Einsatz von endlackiertem getätigt werden können, weil ein sicheres und robustes Fügeverfahren für die Produktion zur Verfügung gestellt werden kann.

Executive summary Today, packaging has gained a significant role in the food industry as well as other industries. Paper substrates that have been coated in some ways are typically used to make packaging. The amount and type of pigment used in the formulation determine whether this coating is a pigment coating or a barrier coating. Critical pigment volume concentration (CPVC) is the optimum spot when the pigments are packed as densely as possible, and the binder fills the air gaps. When the amount of pigment in a coating is less than CPVC, a barrier coating is formed, although when the amount of pigment in the coating is greater than CPVC, a pigment coating is formed. Pigment coating adds optical properties to a package, such as improved printability. And chemical protection is primarily provided for water, water vapour, fats, and gases in the case of the barrier coating. Chemical protection against these substances means, for food packaging, that the shelf life of the product will be extended, among other things. The role of packaging in society is expected to grow as barrier coatings on packaging continue to improve. The use of nanoclay in barrier coatings is investigated in this laboratory study. Two latexes are tested with nanoclay, with latex chosen based on its glass transition temperature (Tg). The hypothesis was that a latex with a higher Tg would have more properties like brittleness and orderly structure in its amorphous structure than the other latex. Latex with a lower Tg, on the other hand, would have more elasticity, be more ductile, and have a lower degree of ordered structure in its amorphous structure. Latex with a higher Tg was referred to as Hard latex and was composed of Styrene-butadiene, while latex with a lower Tg was referred to as Soft latex and was composed of Polyolefin dispersion, although it is unorthodox to call it latex. Previous research has found that the addition of Bentonite nanoclay can improve the mechanical and barrier properties of barrier coatings. Bentonite was therefore chosen as the nanoclay for this study due to having a higher aspect ratio, is flaky and can improve desired properties. The coating was applied as a dispersion coating using a lab-scale rod coater. The substrate for this study was BillerudKorsnäs FibreForm with a grammage of 150 g/m2.In order to find the optimum rod for the coating, three different rods were tested during screening test 1. The rods tested were based on the desired coating weight and thickness, a red rod with a wet film thickness of 12 μm was chosen. The nanoclay content of the latex formulation was investigated to determine the optimal level for improved barrier properties. In screening test 2, the concentrations examined were 2/4/8 w/w% nanoclay in each latex, and 0 w/w% to compare the difference with Hard/Soft latex to see if there are any benefits of nanoclay. For both latexes, the addition of 2/4 w/w% nanoclay resulted in more pinholes as well as a poor water vapour transmission rate and permeability. The results of screening test 2 showed that adding 8 w/w% nanoclay to both latexes improved the water vapour transmission rate, water vapour permeability, and pinholes test when compared to the other concentrations of nanoclay. In the water vapour transmission rate and pinholes test, however, 0 percent nanoclay performed similarly 8 w/w% for each latex formulation. The selected formulation for further study was 8 w/w% nanoclay with Hard/Soft latex.  Water vapour was the most important barrier property to investigate since barrier coatings were intended for food packaging. For the intended food packaging, it was sought that the barrier could be stretched with 3.8/6.7/10.4%-stretch and then characterized by water vapour transmission rate to be able to see the differences before and after stretching. Stretching with tensile tester were performed on a barrier coated FibreForm, first in the machine direction (MD), then in cross-direction (CD). Hydroforming with shaped bubbles was used for the second method of stretching with various bubbles. Stretching in MD + CD, and hydroforming bubbles were done according to the desired %-stretching. Characterization of the coating was done by water vapour transmission rate (WVTR) for all coatings, pinholes test for hydroformed coatings, water vapour permeability (WVP) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) on tensile-stretched coatings. The performance of Soft latex with an 8 w/w% formulation stretched in MD then CD and characterized by water vapour transmission rate was significantly unchanged despite stretching up to 10.4%. This is thought to be because nanoclay, as the literature suggests, has created a better barrier against water vapour. The mean WVTR of 10.4%-stretching in MD then CD was 5.5 g/m2/day, compared to 5.5 g/m2/day for the unstretched barrier.  SEM images of both stretched and non-stretched coatings show that the dispersion of nanoclay is poor, as there are islands of polymer and nanoclay bulk. The poor dispersion of nanoclay in the matrix was due to the lack of polar groups in the backbone of Soft latex (Polyolefin) and also being hydrophobic, as opposed to Bentonite, which is hydrophilic. Despite poor nanoclay dispersion and a stretch of 10.4% in MD + CD, resulting in reduced barrier thickness, WVP improved from 289 g* /m2/day (pre-stress) to 191 g* /m2/day (10.4%-stretch), giving the impression of some reorientation of nanoclay in the polymer matrix. A crack was also visible in SEM images, near the boundary layer between the barrier and the substrate, on an unstretched coating, which is thought to be caused by the difference in the boundary layer and adhesive forces, that has occurred during drying. Cracks are not visible on the stretched barriers, even though it was expected. With increased stretching of hydroforming substrates coated with Soft latex formulation, the performance of water vapour transmission rate was significantly worse. The reason for this is thought to be that the barrier was damaged during hydroforming due to friction during pressing and shaping, as the hydroforming was done on the barrier side. The pinhole test revealed clearly degraded performance with a large number of pinholes. This could indicate that the barrier has been stretched beyond its capacity or has been damaged. There was no correlation found between stretching in tensile tester and hydroforming.  Hard latex with an 8 w/w% formulation stretched in MD then CD and characterized by water vapour transmission rate could be stated to have significantly improved performance despite stretching up to 10.4%. The mean-WVTR of 10.4%-stretching in MD then CD was 11.3 g/m2/day, compared to 16.4 g/m2/day for the unstretched barrier. According to SEM images, the reason for this is that nanoclay was very well dispersed in the matrix and that there has seemingly been a slight reorientation of nanoclay with increased stretch. Furthermore, SEM images show that the thickness was reduced, yet despite this, mean-WVP improved from 1094 g* /m2/day (pre-stress) to 419 g* /m2/day (10.4%-stretch), indicating reorientation of nanoclay and thus improved stretchability.These SEM images show cracks at the boundary layer between the barrier and the substrate for both unstretched and 10.4%-stretched barriers in the Hard latex formulation. The cracks are seemingly stopped by nanoclay in the matrix, according to the stress concentration effect, where the crack moves around nanoclay and not through nanoclay. Hydroforming of barrier coated Hard latex formulation showed a deterioration of water vapour transmission rate with increased stretching. The mean WVTR of hydroforming with 10.4%-stretching was 30.6 g/m2/day. It is not thought that pressing during hydroforming damaged the Hard latex barrier as much, which can be confirmed by the pinholes test. Pinholes test demonstrated good performance and comparable to an unstretched barrier. Because comparisons between the different polymers were impractical, it was not possible to state if the glass transition temperature was important for the improvement seen by stretching in the tensile tester. But it can be argued that Hard latex has a more structured and rigid structure, allowing for a greater degree of reorientation. Soft latex, on the other hand, has less stiffness and thus less reorientation. The result of this study is that when stretching is done in both tensile testing and hydroforming, 8 w/w% nanoclay (bentonite) with Hard latex (styrene-butadiene) can be used advantageously in FibreForm packaging if stretchability is desired while maintaining barrier properties against water vapor. / Sammanfattning Idag har förpackningar fått en betydande roll i matindustrin såväl som andra industrier. Vid bestrykning på förpackningar och papperssubstrat så är det vanligt med pigment- eller barriärbestrykning. Vid pigmentbestrykning så tillförs optiska egenskaper till förpackningen, såsom exempelvis förbättrad tryckbarhet. Vid barriärbestrykning tillförs huvudsakligen kemisk skydd mot exempelvis vatten, vattenånga, fetter eller gaser, och innebär för matförpackningar bland annat att hållbarheten blir längre för livsmedlet. Genom fortsatt utveckling av barriärbestrykningar på förpackningar så förväntas även förpackningens roll i samhället att bli större. I denna laborativa studie undersöks möjligheterna kring töjbara barriärer på papperssubstrat, med fokus på vattenångaresistans.  De formuleringar som togs fram bestod av en latex med låg glasövergångstemperatur (Tg), kallad Soft latex med implementerad nanolera samt en latex med en Tg kallad Hard latex med implementerad nanolera. Soft latex var en Polyolefin dispersion med Tg -30°C, och Hard latex var en Styren-butadien latex med Tg = 0°C. 8 w/w% nanolera var den halt som bedömdes ge förbättringar i de mekaniska samt barriäregenskaper som eftersöktes för de båda latex. För denna studie valdes Bentonit som nanolera, på grund av dess plana samt dess fjälliga (flaky) struktur.  Töjbarheten hos de framtagna barriärformuleringarna testades med töjning i dragprov först i maskin-riktning (MD) och sedan tvär-riktning (CD) samt töjning med hydroforming, med töjning på 3,8/6,7/10,4% för respektive metod. Efter töjning av respektive metod bestämdes överföringshastigheten av vattenångpermabilitet (WVTR) genom barriären. En jämförelse gjordes mellan töjning i dragprov och hydroforming för att få en ökad förståelse kring WVTR-prestationen beroende på metod av töjning.  Soft latex visade en oförändrad vattenångaresistans efter 10,4%-töjning i dragprovaren. Detta tros bero på att nanoleran försvårar vattenångan att genomträngas trots töjning. Vid elektronmikroskop (SEM) kunde det ses att dispersionen av nanolera med Soft latex inte var bra, och därför var inte förbättringarna lika tydliga. Den sämre dispersionen av nanolera i matrisen beror på att Polyolefin saknar polära grupper i dess ryggrad (backbone) samt är väldigt hydrofobt, till skillnad från Bentonit som är hydrofilt. Trots sämre dispersion av nanolera och en töjning på 10,4% i MD + CD, så förbättrades vattenånga permeabiliteten (WVP).För hydroforming var prestationen av Soft latexformuleringen gällande WVTR dåliga, och vid Pinholes test fanns det uppenbara pinholes.  Hard latex visade en tydlig förbättring av WVTR efter 10,4%-töjning i dragprovaren, som tros bero på en omorientering av nanoleran i polymer matrisen vid töjning, vilket kan bekräftas av elektronmikroskop (SEM) där viss omorientering är synlig. Dessutom sågs en tydlig förbättring i WVP trots en lägre barriärtjocklek.För hydroforming var WVTR-värdena liknande till endast Hard latex och 0% nanolera.  Vid töjning var jämförelser beroende på de olika glasövergångstemperaturerna hos polymererna inte möjlig, och därför inte heller möjligt att konstatera ifall glasövergångstemperaturen var viktig för den förbättring som setts trots töjning i dragprovare. Men det kan hävdas att Hard latex har en mer strukturerad och stel struktur, vilket möjliggör en större grad av omorientering. Soft latex däremot, är mindre styvt och mindre ordnat, därav åstadkoms en mindre omorientering.  Resultaten av denna studie är att när stretching görs i både dragprovning och hydroformning, kan 8 w/w% nanoclay (bentonit) med Hard latex (styren-butadien) vara fördelaktig i FibreForm-förpackning om töjbarhet önskas samtidigt som barriäregenskaperna mot vattenånga bibehålls.

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) systems are promising technology for contributing to meet the deficiency of world`s clean and sustainable energy requirements in the near future. Metallic bipolar plate (BPP) as one of the most significant components of PEMFC device accounts for the largest part of the fuel cell`s stack. Corrosion for metallic bipolar plates is a critical issue, which influences the performance and durability of PEMFC. Corrosion causes adverse impacts on the PEMFC`s performance jeopardizing commercialization. This research is aimed at determining the corrosion resistance of metallic BPPs, particularly stainless steels, used in PEMFC from different aspects. Material selection, coating selection, manufacturing process development and cost considerations need to be addressed in terms of the corrosion behavior to justify the use of stainless steels as a BPP material in PEMFC and to make them commercially feasible in industrial applications. In this study, Ti, Ni, SS304, SS316L, and SS 430 blanks, and BPPs comprised of SS304 and SS316L were examined in terms of the corrosion behavior. SS316L plates were coated to investigate the effect of coatings on the corrosion resistance performance. Stamping and hydroforming as manufacturing processes, and three different coatings (TiN, CrN, ZrN) applied via the Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) method in three different thicknesses were selected to observe the effects of manufacturing processes, coating types and coating thicknesses on the corrosion resistance of BPP, respectively. Uncoated-coated blank and formed BPP were subjected to two different corrosion tests: potentiostatic and potentiodynamic. Some of the substantial results: 1- Manufacturing processes have an adverse impact on the corrosion resistance. 2- Hydroformed plates have slightly higher corrosion resistance than stamped samples. 3- BPPs with higher channel size showed better corrosion resistance. 4- Since none of the uncoated samples meet the 2015 target of the U.S. Department of Energy, surface coating is required. 5- ZrN and CrN coated BPPs exhibited higher corrosion resistance meeting DOE target while TiN coated samples had the lowest corrosion resistance. Higher coating thicknesses improved the corrosion resistance of the BPPs. 6- Process sequence between coating and manufacturing is not significant for hydroforming case (ZrN and CrN) and stamping case (CrN) in terms of the corrosion resistance. In other words, coating the BPP`s substrate material before manufacturing process does not always decrease the corrosion resistance of the BPPs.

O uso da simulação via método de elementos finitos (MEF) tem sido de suma importância para o desenvolvimento de processos de conformação hidrostática de tubos (CHT). Sua utilização reduz o método de tentativa e erro na definição do processo e grandes ganhos de produtividade são auferidos. Neste trabalho, a simulação via MEF em conjunto com o desenvolvimento analítico existente na literatura foi utilizada para o desenvolvimento de um método projeto de uma ferramenta simples para a CHT em matriz aberta e para uso em prensa comum. Obtida a ferramenta, foi possível a um baixo custo ser determinado experimentalmente os limites de conformação, o caminho de deformação e as dimensões do tubo expandido sendo possível compara-los com os resultados simulados via MEF. Esta comparação de resultados experimentais e simulados validou o procedimento de simulação e o método de projeto da ferramenta. Quanto ao carregamento, com a ferramenta obtida foram expandidos tubos por dois carregamentos distintos: só pressão e pressão e carga axial simultâneos permitindo assim comprovar a eficácia do segundo carregamento para a obtenção de razões de expansão maiores. Quanto às simulações, executadas em um programa comercial, elas foram desenvolvidas também para ambos os carregamentos. Ainda nestas simulações duas maneiras de aplicar-se a pressão foram avaliadas. Para a determinação dos limites de conformação do tubo fez-se uso da técnica denominada Circle Grid Analisys. Foi escolhido para estudo um tubo extrudado de aço inoxidável AISI 316 L submetido a tempera de solubilização. O método de projeto desenvolvido, numa primeira tentativa, utilizou como dado de entrada as propriedades do Aço AISI 316 L obtidos para chapas o que levou a diferenças entre os resultados simulados e experimentais. Assim foi necessário determinar-se as propriedades do aço AISI 316 L para a condição de tubo extrudado. Para a direção circunferencial utilizou-se o método de ensaios denominado Ring Hoop Tension Test, e para o sentido longitudinal o foi utilizado um ensaio de tração usual. Foram determinados inclusive os coeficientes de anisotropia. Com estes dados novas simulações, considerando a anisotropia do material, foram realizadas. Um aprimoramento do método de projeto foi realizado, sendo construída uma segunda versão da ferramenta para a CHT. Assim os novos resultados simulados foram obtidos e foram comparados com os resultados experimentais e os erros diminuíram significativamente. Como resultado final, para esta segunda versão de simulações, de projeto e ferramenta, os erros dos valores obtidos via simulação via MEF, no diâmetro e na espessura ficaram ao redor de 10%, assumindo o resultado experimental como padrão. Quanto ao limite de conformação os resultados simulados diferiram dos experimentais, porém o estado de deformação e os caminhos de deformação situaram-se no mesmo quadrante no plano das deformações (Curva CLC) para os dois carregamentos. Finalmente, quanto ao diâmetro externo do tubo para os dois carregamentos, o tubo em aço Inoxidável AISI 316 L atingiu diâmetros até 12,9% maiores para expansão por pressão e carga axial em relação àqueles expandidos somente por pressão, os quais foram assumidos como padrão. / The simulation using the finite elements method (FEM) has been of utmost importance for the tube hydroforming (THF) processes development. It reduces the try and error method in the process definition and great profits are gained. In this work, the FEM simulation together with the existing analytical THF theory in the literature was used to develop a process and a simple tool design for the THF, in open die arrangement and to be used in a common press. Gotten this tool, it was possible in a low cost, determine experimentally the forming limits, the strain paths and the evolution of geometry for a tube and then make it possible compares these experimental results with the simulated results obtained by FEM. This comparison of experimental and simulated results validated the simulation procedure and the tool design method. Relate the loads applied during the THF, two distinct load cases were possible: only pressure and simultaneous pressure and axial load, thus allowing proving the effectiveness of the second load case in obtain bigger expansion ratios. Relate to the simulations, they were run in commercial software and also the two load cases were simulated. Additionally in these simulations, two ways to apply the pressure had been evaluated. In the experiments, in the forming limits determination, the Circle Grid Analysis technique was used. A seamless stainless cold finished AISI 316 L solution annealed and quenched tube was chosen for evaluation. The tool design method, in a first attempt, uses the AISI 316 L steel properties obtained from sheets. Big differences between the FEM simulated and experimental results was gotten. Thus, it was necessary execute tensile tests in order to obtain the AISI 316 L steel properties for the seamless stainless cold finished, solution annealed condition. In such a way, a tensile tube test method called Ring Hoop Tension Test was used, to determined AISI 316 L steel properties in the transversal direction and a common tensile test was used for the longitudinal direction. Also, for both directions, anisotropy coefficients were also determined. With these new material properties set, new simulations including the anisotropy and a new improved tool design method were carried through, resulting in a new and improved tool version. Thus, new experiments were performed and compared with the new simulated results and the errors had diminished significantly. As final result, the errors in the diameter and in the thickness had been around of 10%, assuming the experimental result as standard. Relate the forming limits the results had differed, however the strain state and the strain path had been placed the same quadrant in a strain plane graphic (FLD diagram) for both load cases. Finally, relate to the tube expansion ratio, the tube external diameter increase 12,9% greater for tube expansion under pressure and axial load assuming the tube expansion under only pressure as standard.

There exists considerable motivation to reduce vehicle weight through the adoption of lightweight materials, such as aluminum alloys, while maintaining energy absorption and component integrity under crash conditions. To this end, it is of particular interest to study the crash behaviour of lightweight tubular hydroformed structures to determine how the forming behaviour affects the axial crush response. Thus, the current research has studied the dynamic crush response of both non-hydroformed and hydroformed EN-AW 5018 and AA5754 aluminum alloy tubes using both experimental and numerical methods. Experiments were performed in which hydroforming process parameters were varied in a parametric fashion after which the crash response was measured. Experimental parameters included the tube thickness and the hydroformed corner radii of the tubes. Explicit dynamic finite element simulations of the hydroforming and crash events were carried out with particular attention to the transfer of forming history from the hydroforming simulations to the crash models. The results showed that increases in the strength of the material due to work hardening during hydroforming were beneficial in increasing energy absorption during crash. However, it was shown that thinning in the corners of the tube during hydroforming decreased the energy absorption capabilities during axial crush. Residual stresses resulting from hydroforming had little effect on the energy absorption characteristics during axial crush. The current research has shown that, in addition to capturing the forming history in the crash models, it is also important to account for effects of material non-linearity such as kinematic hardening, anisotropy, and strain-rate effects in the finite element models. A model combining a non-linear kinematic hardening model, the Johnson-Cook rate sensitive model, and the Yld2000-2d anisotropic model was developed and implemented in the finite element simulations. This combined model did not account for the effect of rotational hardening (plastic spin) due to plastic deformation. It is recommended that a combined constitutive model, such as the one described in this research, be utilized for the finite element study of materials that show sensitivity to the Bauschinger effect, strain-rate effects, and anisotropy.

There exists considerable motivation to reduce vehicle weight through the adoption of lightweight materials, such as aluminum alloys, while maintaining energy absorption and component integrity under crash conditions. To this end, it is of particular interest to study the crash behaviour of lightweight tubular hydroformed structures to determine how the forming behaviour affects the axial crush response. Thus, the current research has studied the dynamic crush response of both non-hydroformed and hydroformed EN-AW 5018 and AA5754 aluminum alloy tubes using both experimental and numerical methods. Experiments were performed in which hydroforming process parameters were varied in a parametric fashion after which the crash response was measured. Experimental parameters included the tube thickness and the hydroformed corner radii of the tubes. Explicit dynamic finite element simulations of the hydroforming and crash events were carried out with particular attention to the transfer of forming history from the hydroforming simulations to the crash models. The results showed that increases in the strength of the material due to work hardening during hydroforming were beneficial in increasing energy absorption during crash. However, it was shown that thinning in the corners of the tube during hydroforming decreased the energy absorption capabilities during axial crush. Residual stresses resulting from hydroforming had little effect on the energy absorption characteristics during axial crush. The current research has shown that, in addition to capturing the forming history in the crash models, it is also important to account for effects of material non-linearity such as kinematic hardening, anisotropy, and strain-rate effects in the finite element models. A model combining a non-linear kinematic hardening model, the Johnson-Cook rate sensitive model, and the Yld2000-2d anisotropic model was developed and implemented in the finite element simulations. This combined model did not account for the effect of rotational hardening (plastic spin) due to plastic deformation. It is recommended that a combined constitutive model, such as the one described in this research, be utilized for the finite element study of materials that show sensitivity to the Bauschinger effect, strain-rate effects, and anisotropy.