Ephemeral streams are small headwater streams that only experience streamflow in response to a precipitation event. Due to their highly complex and dynamic spatial and temporal nature, ephemeral streams have been difficult to monitor and are in general poorly understood. This research implemented an extensive network of recently developed electrical resistance sensors to monitor ephemeral streamflow in a Southern Ontario watershed, located in Guelph, Ontario. From this data, patterns of stream network expansion and contraction were determined. Further analysis examined a series of spatial and temporal variables that were monitored to explain the occurrence of ephemeral channel activity through binary logistic regression. The results suggest that the most common patterns of network expansion and contraction at the study site are incomplete coalescence and disintegration, respectively. Analysis of the primary controls on ephemeral streamflow showed only weak relationships, suggesting that there are more complex processes at work in these ephemeral streams. This research has implications for improving ephemeral streamflow monitoring in the future, which will be important for developing and implementing meaningful conservation and management strategies.

Recent researches on the effects of environmental degradation on food security suggest that a better understanding of the relationship between agricultural intensification and pollutant transfer is urgently required to support the implementation of sustainable agricultural policies, globally. Poor understanding of the hydrological behaviour of clay-rich soils in intensively managed agricultural regions is highlighted as an important problem. The study therefore evaluated precipitation-soil water chemistry relationships, soil variability and concentration-discharge relationships at the farm-scale based on datasets from the North Wyke Farm Platform between 2011 and 2013. The three main hypothesis were that (1) precipitation and soil water chemistry are significantly related (2) significant relationships exists between the distribution of soil physiochemical characteristics and the managments of the fields, and that (3) hydrological behaviour of fields underlain by certain dominant soils in the study area are different from that of other fields. The basis of this work was to elucidate links between sources of pollutants and water quality, further understanding of the effect that management of the soil may have upon the quality of the water and improve understanding of the pathways of pollutants within intensively managed landscapes. Precipitation chemistry of the study area was chemically different from that of the other regions in the United Kingdom, and was influenced by contributions from sea salts and terrestrial dusts. The soil chemistry was rich in organic matter which contributed significantly (r2>0.60; p<0.05) to the distribution of total carbon and total nitrogen in the fields. Mean total carbon and nitrogen stocks ranged 32.4 - 54.1 t C ha-1, and 4 - 6.2 t Na ha-1, respectively in the entire farm platform while runoff coefficient at four selected fields (Pecketsford, Burrows, Middle and Higher Wyke Moor, and Longlands East) varied between 0.1 and 0.28 in January and November, 2013. The study rejected the first and third hypotheses, and concluded that the study area is largely influenced by contributions from the surface runoff mechanisms. The study also noted that sodium and chloride ions were dominant in the precipitation chemistry, and therefore suggests their further investigation as conservative tracers in the soil and runoff chemistry.

Sob a perspectiva de aumento da demanda global por biocombustíveis, em particular o etanol durante as próximas décadas, espera-se um crescimento ainda maior da indústria sucroalcooleira no Brasil. Aliada à expansão da cultura da cana-de-açúcar, as bacias nas quais se inserem esses plantios estão sujeitas a alterações no regime hidrológico, bem como à elevação do uso de fertilizantes nitrogenados, o que possui implicações na quantidade e qualidade da água nos corpos hídricos. Com intuito de avaliar esses impactos, o presente estudo visou caracterizar as vias hidrológicas e o transporte de nitrogênio associado a elas em vertentes cobertas por cana-de-açúcar localizadas em microbacias do Rio Corumbataí, noroeste do estado de São Paulo. Para isso, foram monitorados alguns processos hidrológicos, entre eles: precipitação total, precipitação interna, escoamento pelo caule, escoamento superficial, umidade do solo em quatro profundidades (15 cm, 30 cm, 50 cm e 90 cm) e deflúvio durante período de 21 de julho de 2012 a 22 de maio de 2013. A precipitação totalizou 1095 mm durante o período de estudo, dos quais em torno de 35% foram interceptados pela cultura. Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre o efeito de diferentes variedades de cana-de-açúcar no que se refere às perdas por interceptação. Além dessa, a parcela de água de chuva escoada pelo caule, a precipitação interna, o escoamento superficial e o deflúvio corresponderam, respectivamente, a 14%, 51%, 4,7% e 7,7% do total precipitado. Nesses compartimentos hidrológicos, de um modo geral, foram observadas baixas concentrações de nitrogênio, com exceção ao escoamento superficial, que apresentou altas concentrações, principalmente de nitrato. O aporte (deposição) de nitrogênio ao sistema, 2,81 kg N ha-¹, foi superior à perda fluvial: 0,45 kg N ha-¹ / The recent years have shown us that there is a perspective of increasing the global biofuels demand, particularly ethanol. In conjunction with the expansion of sugarcane crop, the watersheds in which these crops are founded are subject to hydrological changes, as well as the elevation of the use of nitrogen fertilizers. It has implications in the quantity and quality of water in streams. In order to assess these impacts, the present study aimed to characterize the hydrological flow paths and the associated nitrogen transport in hillslopes under sugarcane in two small watersheds at Corumbataí River, northwest of São Paulo. For this, we monitored some hydrological flow paths, including: gross rainfall, throughfall, stemflow, surface runoff, soil moisture at four depths (15 cm, 30 cm, 50 cm and 90 cm) and streamflow during period of 21 July 2012 to May 22, 2013. Gross rainfall was 1095 mm and around 35% was intercepted by the sugarcane canopy. No significant differences between different varieties of sugarcane were found for interception losses. In addition, rainfall was partitioned into stemflow, throughfall, surface runoff and streamflow as the following: 14%, 51%, 4.7% and 7.7%, respectively. Hydrological flow paths in general carried low nitrogen concentration, being the surface runoff the exception, which carried high levels of nitrate. The nitrogen input in the system was 2.81 kg N ha-¹, and the loss by streamflow was 0.45 kg N ha-1

Sob a perspectiva de aumento da demanda global por biocombustíveis, em particular o etanol durante as próximas décadas, espera-se um crescimento ainda maior da indústria sucroalcooleira no Brasil. Aliada à expansão da cultura da cana-de-açúcar, as bacias nas quais se inserem esses plantios estão sujeitas a alterações no regime hidrológico, bem como à elevação do uso de fertilizantes nitrogenados, o que possui implicações na quantidade e qualidade da água nos corpos hídricos. Com intuito de avaliar esses impactos, o presente estudo visou caracterizar as vias hidrológicas e o transporte de nitrogênio associado a elas em vertentes cobertas por cana-de-açúcar localizadas em microbacias do Rio Corumbataí, noroeste do estado de São Paulo. Para isso, foram monitorados alguns processos hidrológicos, entre eles: precipitação total, precipitação interna, escoamento pelo caule, escoamento superficial, umidade do solo em quatro profundidades (15 cm, 30 cm, 50 cm e 90 cm) e deflúvio durante período de 21 de julho de 2012 a 22 de maio de 2013. A precipitação totalizou 1095 mm durante o período de estudo, dos quais em torno de 35% foram interceptados pela cultura. Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre o efeito de diferentes variedades de cana-de-açúcar no que se refere às perdas por interceptação. Além dessa, a parcela de água de chuva escoada pelo caule, a precipitação interna, o escoamento superficial e o deflúvio corresponderam, respectivamente, a 14%, 51%, 4,7% e 7,7% do total precipitado. Nesses compartimentos hidrológicos, de um modo geral, foram observadas baixas concentrações de nitrogênio, com exceção ao escoamento superficial, que apresentou altas concentrações, principalmente de nitrato. O aporte (deposição) de nitrogênio ao sistema, 2,81 kg N ha-¹, foi superior à perda fluvial: 0,45 kg N ha-¹ / The recent years have shown us that there is a perspective of increasing the global biofuels demand, particularly ethanol. In conjunction with the expansion of sugarcane crop, the watersheds in which these crops are founded are subject to hydrological changes, as well as the elevation of the use of nitrogen fertilizers. It has implications in the quantity and quality of water in streams. In order to assess these impacts, the present study aimed to characterize the hydrological flow paths and the associated nitrogen transport in hillslopes under sugarcane in two small watersheds at Corumbataí River, northwest of São Paulo. For this, we monitored some hydrological flow paths, including: gross rainfall, throughfall, stemflow, surface runoff, soil moisture at four depths (15 cm, 30 cm, 50 cm and 90 cm) and streamflow during period of 21 July 2012 to May 22, 2013. Gross rainfall was 1095 mm and around 35% was intercepted by the sugarcane canopy. No significant differences between different varieties of sugarcane were found for interception losses. In addition, rainfall was partitioned into stemflow, throughfall, surface runoff and streamflow as the following: 14%, 51%, 4.7% and 7.7%, respectively. Hydrological flow paths in general carried low nitrogen concentration, being the surface runoff the exception, which carried high levels of nitrate. The nitrogen input in the system was 2.81 kg N ha-¹, and the loss by streamflow was 0.45 kg N ha-1

In recent years, the Soil-Plant-Atmosphere (SPA) continuum has faced unprecedented challenges due to anthropogenic modifications and climate change. Understanding the complex dynamics of this system in response to such changes is crucial for addressing contemporary environmental concerns. Albert Einstein's famous quote, "The measure of intelligence is the ability to change", resonates deeply throughout this doctoral thesis. This thesis aims to address the complex issue of SPA interactions by developing a comprehensive set of models capable of representing the intricate dynamics of this system. At the core of this research lies the integration of sophisticated descriptions of hydrological and plant biochemical processes into a novel ecohydrological model, GEOSPACE-1D (Soil Plant Atmosphere Continuum Estimator model in GEOframe). Through a combination of theoretical exploration, engineering methodologies, and empirical experiments, this thesis aims to advance our understanding of SPA interactions. The development of adaptable models, represents a significant contribution to the field. The thesis emphasizes the practical implications of employing models to analyze experimental data, thereby enhancing our comprehension of various phenomena. In conclusion, this thesis provides valuable insights into SPA interactions and lays the groundwork for future research and applications. By embracing the challenge of understanding and modeling the SPA continuum, this work contributes to the ongoing efforts to address environmental challenges and promote sustainable practices.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Hillslope hydrology represents a complex system with several interacting processes influencing the movement of water through the landscape. The Western Cape area of South Africa is expected to be impacted on by a change in climate and the importance of water management that will increase in the future. Climate, especially precipitation, is the driving factor behind the hydrological system and there are currently no predictions as to what the impact will be on the hydrological conditions. The main objective of the study is to understand the hydrological responses along a hillslope and secondly to determine the effect of climate change on the hydrology by using hydrological models. The studied system is situated on the Langgewens Experimental Farm, north of Malmesbury in the Swartland region of the Western Cape. Six sites in a range of vegetation, land use and expected soil types along a toposequence were investigated. All sites are rain fed areas with natural vegetation, seasonal or long-term shrubs. Through monitoring different components of the hydrological cycle, including rainfall, overland flow, infiltration, soil water content, base flow and water table depth at the different sites, the movement of water through the landscape can be defined. Hillslope hydrological processes at different positions on the hillslope were investigated. The baseline data obtained during this process was used in hydrological modelling for the different positions on the hillslope to determine the accuracy of model predictions. Expected future climatic conditions were emulated in this model to determine the possible effect of a change in climate on the hydrological system. The research confirmed the complex interaction between different processes within the hydrological system. At each point along the toposequence different components of the hydrological cycle contributed on a different scale to the hydrological system. Soil properties were the most significant factor influencing water movement through the landscape, directly impacting infiltration, overland flow, lateral water flow and deep percolation. This resulted in water table fluctuations through the seasons as the contribution of different components towards the hydrological cycle changed. By comparing soil water content measurements through the season with modelled water content levels, accurate hydrological models were created for different measuring points in the landscape. By using forecasted climate data of two different weather generators, accurate estimations of expected soil water content were possible. This indicated that droughts will occur on a regular basis in the future. This research made it possible to understand water movement through the landscape at hillslope level and contributed towards future water management plans by estimating future soil water content levels based on current predictions. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Heuwelhang hidrologie omskryf die proses van water beweging deur die landskap en dit word deur verskeie prosesse beinvloed. Onder huidige toestande word verwag dat die Weskaap provinsie van Suid-Afrika warmer en droëer sal word in die toekoms as gevolg van klimaatsverandering. Dit sal die noodsaaklikheid van effektiewe waterbestuur verhoog in die toekoms. Klimaat, en in besonder reënval, is die dryfkrag agter die hidrologiese sisteem en huidiglik is daar geen aanduiding van wat die effek van klimaatsverandering op die hidrologiese sisteem gaan wees nie. Die eerste doel van die studie is om die heuwelhang se hidrologiese sisteem te ontleed en tweedens om die impak van klimaatsverandering op die hidrologiese sisteem te bepaal deur gebruik te maak van hidrologiese modelle. Die studie area is geleë op die Langgewens Proefplaas, noord van Malmesbury in die Swartland distrik van die Weskaap. Ses verskillende posisies is op die heuwelhang geselekteer op grond van posisie in die landskap, plantegroei, landgebruik en verwagte grondvorms. Al die studiepunte ontvang slegs water deur reën en die landgebruik wissel ten opsigte van natuurlike plantegroei, en eenjarige- of meerjarige gewasse wat gevestig is. Deur verskillende komponente van die hidrologiese sisteem te monitor, insluitend reënval, oppervlak afloop, infiltrasie, grond water inhoud, laterale water vloei en die diepte van die watertafel, kan die beweging van water deur die landskap gedefinieër word. Die data wat versamel is gedurende die proses word gebruik om die akkuraatheid van die hidrologiese modelle se resultate te bepaal. Tesame met vooruitgeskatte klimaatdata kan die modelle gebruik word om die impak van klimaatsverandering op grondwater toestande vas te stel. Die navorsing toon die komplekse interaksie tussen verskillende prosesse in die hidrologiese sisteem. By elke punt in die landskap dra verskillende komponente op verskillende skale by tot die hidrologiese sisteem. Grondeienskappe het die meeste invloed op die verskillende komponente van die hidrologiese sisteem en beïnvloed die infiltrasie, oppervlak afloop, laterale water vloei en diep dreinering. Soos die verskillende komponente se bydrae tot die hidrologiese sisteem verander, vind daar fluktuasies in die diepte van die water tafel plaas. Deur die vergelyking van gemete grondwaterinhoud teen hidrologiese model voorspelde grondwaterinhoude, is akkurate hidrologiese modelle opgestel vir verskillende punte in die landskap. Deur gebruik te maak van twee moontlike verwagte klimaat toestande, is gevind dat droogtes op ‘n roetine basis in die toekoms sal voorkom. Die navorsing maak dit moontlik om die beweging van water deur die landskap te verstaan en dra by tot die opstelling van toekomstige waterbestuur planne. Dit word moontlik gemaak deur die vooruitskatting van grondwater inhoude gebasseer op verwagte klimaatsveranderinge en huidige grondwater toestande. / Water Research Commission

A Mata Atlântica, um dos ecossistemas mais ameaçados do planeta, reduzida atualmente a menos de 8% de sua cobertura original, necessita atenção especial em termos de compreensão do seu funcionamento como subsídio para sua melhor conservação. O presente estudo além de expandir a quantidade de estudos realizados nessa região, visou caracterizar o funcionamento hidrológico e a dinâmica do nitrogênio de uma microbacia com cobertura de Mata Atlântica no litoral norte do Estado de São Paulo. Para isso, foram monitorados alguns processos hidrológicos, entre eles: escoamento superficial, umidade do solo (0,15, 0,30, 0,50 e 0,90 metros de profundidade), água subterrânea, transprecipitação, precipitação e vazão, entre os anos de 2008 e 2009. Com o intuito de elucidar os processos hidrológicos que geram escoamento direto, mediu-se a condutividade hidráulica do solo (Ksat) nas mesmas profundidades da umidade do solo, com um permeâmetro de carga constante. Adicionalmente foi utilizado um sistema de injeção em fluxo (FIA) para a análise de nitrogênio inorgânico (N-NH4 + e N-NO3 -) e para a análise do nitrogênio total dissolvido (NTD) foi utilizado o TOC (Total Organic Carbon Analyser). A precipitação total no ano de 2008 foi de 1716 mm, aproximadamente 33% foi interceptada pela floresta e 67% chegam à superfície do solo. O deflúvio total foi de 681 mm, dessa forma o coeficiente de deflúvio foi de aproximadamente 40% da precipitação, sendo o restante perdido por evapotranspiração (1035 mm.ano-1). Já o ano de 2009, a precipitação foi de 3003 mm, sendo quase 60% a mais em relação a 2008, e aproximadamente 32% foi interceptada pela floresta e 68% chegam à superfície do solo. O coeficiente de deflúvio foi de aproximadamente 48% da precipitação, sendo 52% perdidos por evapotranspiração. O fato de haver predomínio de intensidades de chuva de 0 a 5 mm.h-1 permite inferir que quase a totalidade das chuvas pode se infiltrar no solo já que Ksat a 0,15 m de profundidade geralmente está acima dos valores de intensidade de chuva. O que está de acordo com o baixo valor obtido no coeficiente de escoamento superficial. Todos os processos hidrológicos apresentaram baixas concentrações de nitrogênio inorgânico. O aporte de nitrogênio no sistema hidrográfico pela precipitação no ano de 2008 foi de 3,79 kg N ha-1 ano-1, e a perda via fluvial foi de 0,67 kg N ha-1 ano-1, gerando um ganho líquido de 3,12 kg N ha-1 ano-1. No ano de 2009 o ganho foi de 1,39 kg N ha-1 ano-1 de nitrogênio, com um aporte de 1,84 kg N ha-1 ano-1 e uma perda via fluvial de 0,45 kg N ha-1 ano-1. Com os resultados obtidos, podemos concluir que o escoamento de base foi à principal via hidrológica que compõe o deflúvio, e apesar da precipitação ter sido maior em 2009, as proporções de interceptação, escoamento superficial e evapotranspiração se mantiveram inalteradas. Em termos de nitrogênio, as baixas entradas e saídas monstraram que a microbacia possui ciclo de nitrogênio bastante conservativo. Com exceção do escoamento superficial e da transprecipitação, o nitrogênio orgânico predominou em relação ao inorgânico / The Atlantic rainforest is one of the most endangered ecosystems of our planet, this once huge forest area presents only 8% of its original distribution and need special attention in terms of the comprehension of its functioning as a mean to improve conservation goals. In this context, the present study contributes to increase the quantity of studies carried out in this region aimed to describe the hydrological functioning and the nitrogen dynamics of a small catchment covered by Atlantic rainforest sited on north coast of Sao Paulo State, Brazil. To reach these goals, hydrological processes such as surface runoff, groundwater, streamflow, precipitation, net precipitation, soil water storage at 0,15, 0,30, 0,50 and 0,90 m, water table fluctuations, were monitored during two years (2008 and 2009). Aiming to clarify soil hydrological processes the soil saturated hydraulic conductivity was measured in the field at the depths of water storage measurements using a constant head permeameter. In addition, a flow injection system was used to determine inorganic (N-NO3 - and N-NH4 +) concentrations in the water of these hydrological processes. For organic nitrogen calculations, total dissolved nitrogen was determined by Total Organic Carbon Analyser. For 2008, the annual precipitation (P) was 1716 mm, being 33% intercepted by the forest canopy. The remaining 67% reached the soil surface. The annual water yield (Q) was 681 mm and the runoff coefficient was 40% of annual rainfall being the rest, 1035 mm, lost as evapotranspiration. For 2009, annual precipitation was 2009, a value 60% higher than in 2008. Of this amount, 32% was intercepted by forest and 68% reached the forest floor. Runoff coefficient was 48% of annual rainfall and the difference between these processes was lost as evapotranspiration. The predominance of low intensity rainfall (0 5 mm h-1) provide basis to infer that most rainfall events infiltrate the soil because Ksat at 0,15 m always exceeds this rainfall rates. In this way, very low surface runoff coefficients were calculated from the plots. For nitrogen, the results of inorganic nitrogen concentrations showed very low values in all hydrological processes. The rainfall input of nitrogen in 2008 was 3,79 kg ha-1 yr-1 and output by streamflow was 0,67 kg ha-1 yr-1. Calculations show a net gain of 3,12 kg ha-1 yr-1. For 2009, the net gain was about 1,39 kg ha-1 yr-1. Annual rainfall input was estimated as 1,84 kg ha-1 yr-1 and nitrogen streamflow outputs was 0,45 kg ha-1 yr-1. From these results, the following conclusions can be drawn: (a) baseflow is the main source of water for the annual water yields. Despite the fact of higher annual precipitation in 2009, interception losses as well as surface runoff and evapotranspiration maintained the same values. For nitrogen, low deposition rates (inputs) as well as low outputs via streamflow demonstrate that the forest within the watershed presents a conservative nitrogen cycle. Except for net precipitation and surface runoff, organic nitrogen predominated against inorganic nitrogen

Streamflow dynamics in mountainous environments are controlled by runoff generation processes in the basin upstream. Runoff generation processes are thus a major control of the terrestrial part of the water cycle, influencing both, water quality and water quantity as well as their dynamics. The understanding of these processes becomes especially important for the prediction of floods, erosion, and dangerous mass movements, in particular as hydrological systems often show threshold behavior. In case of extensive environmental changes, be it in climate or in landuse, the understanding of runoff generation processes will allow us to better anticipate the consequences and can thus lead to a more responsible management of resources as well as risks. In this study the runoff generation processes in a small undisturbed catchment in the Chilean Andes were investigated. The research area is characterized by steep hillslopes, volcanic ash soils, undisturbed old growth forest and high rainfall amounts. The investigation of runoff generation processes in this data scarce area is of special interest as a) little is known on the hydrological functioning of the young volcanic ash soils, which are characterized by extremely high porosities and hydraulic conductivities, b) no process studies have been carried out in this area at either slope or catchment scale, and c) understanding the hydrological processes in undisturbed catchments will provide a basis to improve our understanding of disturbed systems, the shift in processes that followed the disturbance and maybe also future process evolution necessary for the achievement of a new steady state. The here studied catchment has thus the potential to serve as a reference catchment for future investigations. As no long term data of rainfall and runoff exists, it was necessary to replace long time series of data with a multitude of experimental methods, using the so called "multi-method approach". These methods cover as many aspects of runoff generation as possible and include not only the measurement of time series such as discharge, rainfall, soil water dynamics and groundwater dynamics, but also various short term measurements and experiments such as determination of throughfall amounts and variability, water chemistry, soil physical parameters, soil mineralogy, geo-electrical soundings and tracer techniques. Assembling the results like pieces of a puzzle produces a maybe not complete but nevertheless useful picture of the dynamic ensemble of runoff generation processes in this catchment. The employed methods were then evaluated for their usefulness vs. expenditures (labour and financial costs). Finally, the hypotheses - the perceptual model of runoff generation generated from the experimental findings - were tested with the physically based model Catflow. Additionally the process-based model Wasim-ETH was used to investigate the influence of landuse on runoff generation at the catchment scale. An initial assessment of hydrologic response of the catchment was achieved with a linear statistical model for the prediction of event runoff coefficients. The parameters identified as best predictors give a first indication of important processes. Various results acquired with the "multi-method approach" show that response to rainfall is generally fast. Preferential vertical flow is of major importance and is reinforced by hydrophobicity during the summer months. Rapid lateral water transport is necessary to produce the fast response signal, however, while lateral subsurface flow was observed at several soil moisture profiles, the location and type of structures causing fast lateral flow on the hillslope scale is still not clear and needs to be investigated in more detail. Surface runoff has not been observed and is unlikely due to the high hydraulic conductivities of the volcanic ash soils. Additionally, a large subsurface storage retains most of the incident rainfall amount during events (>90%, often even >95%) and produces streamflow even after several weeks of drought. Several findings suggest a shift in processes from summer to winter causing changes in flow patterns, changes in response of stream chemistry to rainfall events and also in groundwater-surface water interactions. The results of the modelling study confirm the importance of rapid and preferential flow processes. However, due to the limited knowledge on subsurface structures the model still does not fully capture runoff response. Investigating the importance of landuse on runoff generation showed that while peak runoff generally increased with deforested area, the location of these areas also had an effect. Overall, the "multi-method approach" of replacing long time series with a multitude of experimental methods was successful in the identification of dominant hydrological processes and thus proved its applicability for data scarce catchments under the constraint of limited resources. / Die Abflussdynamik in Mittel- und Hochgebirgen wird durch die Abflussbildungsprozesse im Einzugsgebiet bestimmt. Diese Prozesse kontrollieren damit zu großen Teilen den terrestrischen Teil des Wasserkreislaufs und beeinflussen sowohl Wasserqualität als auch -quantität. Das Verständnis von Abflussbildungsprozessen ist besonders wichtig für die Vorhersage von Hochwasser, Erosion und Massenbewegungen (z.B. Erdrutsche) da hydrologische Systeme oft Schwellenwertverhalten aufweisen. Im Falle weit reichender Umweltveränderungen, wie z.B. Klima- oder Landnutzungsänderungen kann das Verständnis der Abflussbildungsprozesse ein verantwortungsvolleres Management sowohl der Ressourcen als auch der Risiken ermöglichen. In dieser Studie wurden die Abflussbildungsprozesse in einem kleinen, anthropogen unbeeinflussten Einzugsgebiet in den Chilenischen Anden untersucht. Das Untersuchungsgebiet ist durch steile Hänge, vulkanische Ascheböden, ungestörten Naturwald und hohe Niederschlagsmengen charakterisiert. Die Erforschung von Abflussbildungsprozessen ist hier von besonderem Interesse, da a) wenig über das hydrologische Verhalten der hochporösen und hochleitfähigen jungen Ascheböden bekannt ist, b) in dieser Region bisher keine Studien auf Hang- oder Einzugsgebietsskala durchgeführt wurden, und c) das Prozessverständnis in ungestörten Einzugsgebieten als Basis zum besseren Verständnis bereits anthropogen beeinflusster Gebiete dienen kann. Das hier untersuchte Gebiet hat daher das Potential zum Referenzgebiet für zukünftige Studien und Forschungsprojekte. Bedingt durch die Kürze der vorliegenden Abfluss- und Niederschlagszeitreihen war es nötig, den bestehenden Datenmangel durch eine Vielzahl von experimentellen Methoden und Ansätzen auszugleichen. Dieser Ansatz wird im Folgenden der "Multi-Methoden-Ansatz" genannt. Die ausgewählten Methoden sollten dabei so viele Aspekte der Abflussbildung abdecken wie möglich. Es wurden daher nicht nur Zeitreihen von Abfluss, Niederschlag, Bodenfeuchte- und Grundwasserdynamik gemessen, sondern auch eine große Zahl an Kurzzeitmessungen und Experimenten durchgeführt. Diese beinhalteten u.a. Messung des Bestandesniederschlags, Bestimmung der Wasserchemie, Bestimmung bodenphysikalischer Parameter und der Bodenmineralogie, sowie geophysikalische Messungen und Tracermethoden. Die Synthese der Resultate gleicht dem Zusammensetzen eines Puzzles. Das so entstandene Bild des dynamischen Prozess-Ensembles ist trotz möglicher fehlender Puzzlestücke hochinformativ. In einem nächsten Schritt wurden die ausgewählten Methoden im Hinblick auf Erkenntnisgewinn und Kosten (d.h. finanzielle Kosten und Arbeitszeit) evaluiert. Das durch die experimentellen Ergebnisse gewonnene Bild der Abflussbildung wurde anschließend mit Hilfe des physikalisch basierten Modells Catflow überprüft. Weiterhin wurde mit dem prozessbasierten Modell Wasim-ETH der Einfluss der Landnutzung auf die Abflussbildung auf Einzugsgebietsskala untersucht. Die Ergebnisse des "Multi-Methoden-Ansatzes" zeigen, dass die Abflussreaktion in diesem Gebiet sehr schnell erfolgt. Vertikales präferenzielles Fliessen ist hier von großer Bedeutung und wird in den Sommermonaten noch durch Hydrophobizitätseffekte verstärkt. Schneller lateraler Fluss im Untergrund ist eine weitere Vorraussetzung für die schnelle Reaktion des Abflusses (Oberflächenabfluss ist hier aufgrund der hohen hydraulischen Leitfähigkeiten unwahrscheinlich). Obwohl bei der Untersuchung der Bodenfeuchtedynamik in einigen Profilen laterale Fließmuster beobachtet wurden, ist die Art und Lage der Untergrundstrukturen, die auf der Hangskala schnellen lateralen Fluss verursachen, noch unklar und sollte genauer untersucht werden. Die Tatsache, dass bei Niederschlagsereignissen der Großteil der Niederschlagsmenge nicht zum Abfluss kommt (>90%, oft auch >95%), sowie der kontinuierliche Abfluss selbst nach Wochen der Trockenheit, lassen auf einen großen unterirdischen Speicher schließen. Der Wechsel von Winter (nass) zu Sommer (trocken) scheint Veränderungen im Prozess-Ensemble hervorzurufen, die sich in der Änderung von Fließmustern, von Grundwasser-Oberflächenwasser-Interaktionen, sowie veränderter Reaktion der Wasserchemie auf Niederschlagsereignisse beobachten ließ. Die Modellstudie bestätigte die Bedeutung der schnellen Fließwege. Als Folge von Informationsdefiziten über die Strukturen des Untergrunds ließ sich jedoch die Abflussbildung noch nicht vollständig reproduzieren. Die Untersuchung zur Bedeutung der Landnutzung für die Abflussbildung mit Hilfe eines Einzugsgebietsmodells zeigte die Zunahme der maximalen Abflüsse mit zunehmender Entwaldung. Weiterhin erwies sich auch die Lage der abgeholzten Flächen als ein wichtiger Faktor für die Abflussreaktion. Der "Multi-Methoden-Ansatz" lieferte wichtige Erkenntnisse zum Verständnis der Abflussbildungspozesse in den Anden Südchiles und zeigte sich als adäquates Mittel für hydrologische Prozess-Studien in datenarmen Gebieten.

The objective of this thesis is to improve the knowledge of control mechanisms of hydrological induced mass movements. To this end, detailed hydrological process studies and physically-based hydrological modelling were applied. The study site is a hillslope in the Dornbirn Ache valley near Bregenz, Austria. This so called Heumös slope features a deep-seated translational shear zone and surface near creep movements of up to 10 cm a year. The Cretaceous marlstones of the Austrian Helveticum have a high susceptibility for weathering and might form clay-rich cohesive sediments. In addition, glacial and post-glacial processes formed an unstable hillslope. High yearly precipitation depths of about 2100 mm and rainstorms with both high intensities and precipitation depths govern surface and subsurface hydrological processes. Pressure propagation induced in hydrological active areas influences laterally the groundwater reactions of the moving mass. A complex three-dimensional subsurface pressure system is the cause for fast groundwater reactions despite low hydraulic conductivities. To understand hillslope scale variability, hydrotopes representing specific dominating processes were mapped using vegetation association distribution and soil core analysis. Detailed small-scale soil investigations followed to refine the understanding of these hydrotopes. A perceptional model was developed from the hydrotope distribution and was corroborated by these detailed investigations. The moving hillslope is dominated by surface-runoff generation. Infiltration and deep percolation of water is inhibited through clay-rich gleysols; the yearly average soil moisture is close to saturation. Steep slopes adjacent to the moving hillslope are far more active concerning infiltration, preferential flow and groundwater fluctuations. Spring discharge observations at the toe of the steep slopes are in close relation to groundwater table observations on the moving hillslope body. Evidence of pressure propagation from the steep slopes towards the hillslope body is gathered by comparison of dominating structures and processes. The application of the physically-based hydrological model CATFLOW substantiates the idea of pressure propagation as a key process for groundwater reactions and as a possible trigger for movement in the hillslope. / Diese Arbeit soll die Zusammenhänge von hydrologischen Rahmenbedingungen und Massenbewegungen besser erforschen, damit in Zukunft verbesserte Vorhersagen des Versagenszeitpunktes möglich werden. Das Untersuchungsgebiet besteht aus einem ca. 2 km langen und 500 m breiten Hang mit einem maximalen Höhenunterschied von ca. 400 m. Das dort vorkommende Festgestein besteht im Wesentlichen aus Mergelstein. Die vergangenen Eiszeiten haben dieses Gestein überarbeitet und Grundmoränenablagerungen auf dem Hang zurückgelassen. Diese wurden in den letzen 10.000 Jahren von Hangschutt, der aus den benachbarten Steilhängen stammt, überlagert. Der Hangschutt ist sehr verwitterungsanfällig, die Kalkkristalle lösen sich und wandeln den Hangschutt in lehmiges Material. Bewegungsmessungen an der Oberfläche zeigen, dass sich der Hang mit ca. 10 cm im Jahr talabwärts bewegt. Diese Bewegungen werden sehr wahrscheinlich durch kleine ruckartige Ereignisse in ca. 8 m Tiefe ausgelöst. Ziel der Untersuchungen war, den Wasserhaushalt des Hanges so gut wie möglich zu erfassen und mit Computermodellen abzubilden. Dabei spielt die Heterogenität der pedologischen Eigenschaften einen wesentliche Rolle, als Eingangsparameter für die Modelle. Grundwasserstandsmessungen in 5,5 m Tiefe auf dem Hang zeigen schnelle Reaktionen des Grundwasserspiegels nach Niederschlagsereignissen. Das Wasser dieser Ereignisse kann aber aufgrund des Lehms, der nur eine geringe Wasserdurchlässigkeit für Wasser besitzt, nicht in den tieferen Untergrund gelangen, sondern fließt fast vollständig an der Oberfläche ab. Dahingegen führt ein schnelles Versickern von Wasser in an den Hang anschließenden Steilhängen zu einem schnellen Grundwasseranstieg, der aufgrund eines gespannten Grundwasserleiters den Druck in die Hangrutschung weitergibt. Dort wird ein Überdruck aufgebaut, der sehr wahrscheinlich die Bewegungen auslöst. Die vorliegende Arbeit ist eine detaillierte Herangehensweise um Erkenntnisse aus der Hyrologie für die Bestimmung des Wasserhaushaltes von Massenbewegungen heranzuziehen.

A Mata Atlântica, um dos ecossistemas mais ameaçados do planeta, reduzida atualmente a menos de 8% de sua cobertura original, necessita atenção especial em termos de compreensão do seu funcionamento como subsídio para sua melhor conservação. O presente estudo além de expandir a quantidade de estudos realizados nessa região, visou caracterizar o funcionamento hidrológico e a dinâmica do nitrogênio de uma microbacia com cobertura de Mata Atlântica no litoral norte do Estado de São Paulo. Para isso, foram monitorados alguns processos hidrológicos, entre eles: escoamento superficial, umidade do solo (0,15, 0,30, 0,50 e 0,90 metros de profundidade), água subterrânea, transprecipitação, precipitação e vazão, entre os anos de 2008 e 2009. Com o intuito de elucidar os processos hidrológicos que geram escoamento direto, mediu-se a condutividade hidráulica do solo (Ksat) nas mesmas profundidades da umidade do solo, com um permeâmetro de carga constante. Adicionalmente foi utilizado um sistema de injeção em fluxo (FIA) para a análise de nitrogênio inorgânico (N-NH4 + e N-NO3 -) e para a análise do nitrogênio total dissolvido (NTD) foi utilizado o TOC (Total Organic Carbon Analyser). A precipitação total no ano de 2008 foi de 1716 mm, aproximadamente 33% foi interceptada pela floresta e 67% chegam à superfície do solo. O deflúvio total foi de 681 mm, dessa forma o coeficiente de deflúvio foi de aproximadamente 40% da precipitação, sendo o restante perdido por evapotranspiração (1035 mm.ano-1). Já o ano de 2009, a precipitação foi de 3003 mm, sendo quase 60% a mais em relação a 2008, e aproximadamente 32% foi interceptada pela floresta e 68% chegam à superfície do solo. O coeficiente de deflúvio foi de aproximadamente 48% da precipitação, sendo 52% perdidos por evapotranspiração. O fato de haver predomínio de intensidades de chuva de 0 a 5 mm.h-1 permite inferir que quase a totalidade das chuvas pode se infiltrar no solo já que Ksat a 0,15 m de profundidade geralmente está acima dos valores de intensidade de chuva. O que está de acordo com o baixo valor obtido no coeficiente de escoamento superficial. Todos os processos hidrológicos apresentaram baixas concentrações de nitrogênio inorgânico. O aporte de nitrogênio no sistema hidrográfico pela precipitação no ano de 2008 foi de 3,79 kg N ha-1 ano-1, e a perda via fluvial foi de 0,67 kg N ha-1 ano-1, gerando um ganho líquido de 3,12 kg N ha-1 ano-1. No ano de 2009 o ganho foi de 1,39 kg N ha-1 ano-1 de nitrogênio, com um aporte de 1,84 kg N ha-1 ano-1 e uma perda via fluvial de 0,45 kg N ha-1 ano-1. Com os resultados obtidos, podemos concluir que o escoamento de base foi à principal via hidrológica que compõe o deflúvio, e apesar da precipitação ter sido maior em 2009, as proporções de interceptação, escoamento superficial e evapotranspiração se mantiveram inalteradas. Em termos de nitrogênio, as baixas entradas e saídas monstraram que a microbacia possui ciclo de nitrogênio bastante conservativo. Com exceção do escoamento superficial e da transprecipitação, o nitrogênio orgânico predominou em relação ao inorgânico / The Atlantic rainforest is one of the most endangered ecosystems of our planet, this once huge forest area presents only 8% of its original distribution and need special attention in terms of the comprehension of its functioning as a mean to improve conservation goals. In this context, the present study contributes to increase the quantity of studies carried out in this region aimed to describe the hydrological functioning and the nitrogen dynamics of a small catchment covered by Atlantic rainforest sited on north coast of Sao Paulo State, Brazil. To reach these goals, hydrological processes such as surface runoff, groundwater, streamflow, precipitation, net precipitation, soil water storage at 0,15, 0,30, 0,50 and 0,90 m, water table fluctuations, were monitored during two years (2008 and 2009). Aiming to clarify soil hydrological processes the soil saturated hydraulic conductivity was measured in the field at the depths of water storage measurements using a constant head permeameter. In addition, a flow injection system was used to determine inorganic (N-NO3 - and N-NH4 +) concentrations in the water of these hydrological processes. For organic nitrogen calculations, total dissolved nitrogen was determined by Total Organic Carbon Analyser. For 2008, the annual precipitation (P) was 1716 mm, being 33% intercepted by the forest canopy. The remaining 67% reached the soil surface. The annual water yield (Q) was 681 mm and the runoff coefficient was 40% of annual rainfall being the rest, 1035 mm, lost as evapotranspiration. For 2009, annual precipitation was 2009, a value 60% higher than in 2008. Of this amount, 32% was intercepted by forest and 68% reached the forest floor. Runoff coefficient was 48% of annual rainfall and the difference between these processes was lost as evapotranspiration. The predominance of low intensity rainfall (0 5 mm h-1) provide basis to infer that most rainfall events infiltrate the soil because Ksat at 0,15 m always exceeds this rainfall rates. In this way, very low surface runoff coefficients were calculated from the plots. For nitrogen, the results of inorganic nitrogen concentrations showed very low values in all hydrological processes. The rainfall input of nitrogen in 2008 was 3,79 kg ha-1 yr-1 and output by streamflow was 0,67 kg ha-1 yr-1. Calculations show a net gain of 3,12 kg ha-1 yr-1. For 2009, the net gain was about 1,39 kg ha-1 yr-1. Annual rainfall input was estimated as 1,84 kg ha-1 yr-1 and nitrogen streamflow outputs was 0,45 kg ha-1 yr-1. From these results, the following conclusions can be drawn: (a) baseflow is the main source of water for the annual water yields. Despite the fact of higher annual precipitation in 2009, interception losses as well as surface runoff and evapotranspiration maintained the same values. For nitrogen, low deposition rates (inputs) as well as low outputs via streamflow demonstrate that the forest within the watershed presents a conservative nitrogen cycle. Except for net precipitation and surface runoff, organic nitrogen predominated against inorganic nitrogen