Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: At Skorpion Zinc mine, in south-west Namibia, zinc oxide ore is refined through sulphuric acid leaching, solvent extraction, electrowinning and casting of the final 99.995 % Zn metal. Over the last four years, the rare earth element concentrations, with particular reference to Y, Yb, Er and Sc, have significantly increased in the circulating electrolyte and the zinc-stripped organic phase streams in the electrowinning and solvent extraction processes. This project had two main objectives: firstly, the effect(s) of rare earths on the zinc solvent extraction and electrowinning processes were to be determined; based on these results, the second objective was to find a suitable method for removing rare earth elements from the organic phase during zinc solvent extraction. The investigation into the effect of the rare earths on zinc electrowinning showed that an increase of 100 mg/l in the electrolyte Y concentration caused a decrease of 6 % in current efficiency. The elemental order of decreasing current efficiency was found to be: Y > Yb > Er > Sc. In the zinc solvent extraction process, it was found that an increase in the total organic rare earth elements and iron concentration from 3100 to 6250 mg/l resulted in doubled viscosity and an increase in phase disengagement time from 100 to 700 seconds. The organic zinc loading capacity after two extraction stages was reduced by 1 – 3 g/l depending on the pregnant leach solution used. The detrimental effect of rare earth elements on solvent extraction and electroplating of zinc therefore justified the development of a rare earth element removal process. Stripping of low concentrations of rare earth elements from 40% D2EHPA diluted in kerosene to produce a clean organic for zinc extraction was investigated using bench-scale experiments in a glass jacketed mixing cylinder. For the rare earths, the best stripping agent was found to be H2SO4, followed by HCl and then HNO3. Hydrochloric acid achieved better Fe stripping than sulphuric acid. Acid concentration was tested in the range of 1 to 7 M, organic-to-aqueous ratio for the range of 0.25 to 6.0 and temperatures between 30 and 55 °C. More than 80% stripping of yttrium and erbium could be achieved at an optimum hydrochloric acid concentration of 5 M and more than 90% rare earth element (specifically Y, Er, Yb) stripping from the organic phase could be achieved with 5 M sulphuric acid. Stripping was improved by reducing the organic-to-aqueous ratio to as low as 0.5 and increasing the temperature. Stripping increased with increasing temperature in an S-shaped curve, flattening off at 50°C. The effect of O:A ratio was more significant than the effect of temperature on rare earth stripping. The results showed good repeatability, and were not limited by the rare earth concentration, agitation rate or equilibrium time in the range of set points used in the experiments. Statistical models were compiled to fit the experimental data obtained for Y, Yb, Er and Fe when stripped with sulphuric and hydrochloric acid respectively. All models showed dependence on the acid concentration and squared-concentration and interaction effects between the O:A ratio and temperature and stripping agent concentration were significant. The models were compiled for the experimental data obtained from stripping synthetically prepared organic and then tested on results obtained when stripping the plant organic phase. The following three process solutions were discussed for implementation on a plant scale for the removal of rare earths from the organic phase during zinc solvent extraction: Sulphuric acid stripping mixer settler or stripping column, improvement of available HCl stripping section and replacement of the organic inventory. The possibility of an oxalic acid precipitation process to obtain value from the rare earths as by-product was also discussed. It was concluded that the current process that uses HCl to strip off iron and rare earths would be the best practically and financially feasible process. Value can be gained from the rare earths if a rare earth element - oxalic acid precipitation section that is financially feasible can be established. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: By Skorpion Zinc myn, in suidwes Namibië, word sinkoksied erts gesuiwer deur middel van swaelsuur-loging, oplosmiddel ekstraksie, elektroplatering en gieting van die finale 99.995 % Zn metaal. Oor die afgelope vier jaar het die seldsame aardmetale konsentrasie, spesifiek Y, Yb, Er en Sc, noemenswaardig in die sirkulerende elektroliet en sink-gestroopte organiese fase toegeneem. Hierdie projek het twee hoofdoelstellings gehad: eerstens moes die effek van seldsame aardmetale op die sink oplosmiddel ekstraksie en elektroplatering prosesse bepaal word; gebaseer op hierdie resultate, was die tweede doelstelling om ‘n geskikte metode vir die verwydering van seldsame aardmetale vanaf die organiese fase gedurende sink oplosmiddel ekstraksie te vind. Die ondersoek na die effek van seldsame aardmetale op sink elektroplatering het gewys dat ‘n verhoging van 100 mg/l in die elektroliet Y konsentrasie ‘n verlaging van 6 % in kragdoeltreffendheid veroorsaak het. Die element-orde van verminderende kragdoeltreffendheid was Y > Yb > Er > Sc. Vir die sink oplosmiddel ekstraksie proses, is gevind dat ‘n verhoging in die totale organiese seldsame aardmetaal- en yster konsentrasie van 3100 tot 6250 mg/l ‘n verdubbelde viskositeit en ‘n verlenging in faseskeidingstyd van 100 tot 700 sekondes tot gevolg gehad het. Die organiese sink ladingskapasiteit na twee ekstraksie stappe is met 1 – 3 g/l verminder afhangende van die logings oplossing wat gebruik is. Die nadelige effek van seldsame aardmetale op oplosmiddel ekstraksie en sink elektroplatering het die ontwikkeling van ‘n seldsame aardmetale verwyderingsproses regverdig. Die verwydering van lae konsentrasies seldsame aardmetale vanaf die D2EHPA-keroseen organiese fase om ‘n skoon organiese fase vir sink-ekstraksie te verkry is ondersoek deur banktoetsskaal eksperimente. Vir die seldsame aardmetale is bevind dat H2SO4 die beste stropingsagent is, gevolg deur HCl en dan HNO3. Soutsuur het beter yster verwydering as swaelsuur bewerkstellig. Suurkonsentrasies van 1 tot 7 M, O:A verhoudings van 0.25 tot 6 en temperature tussen 30 en 55°C is getoets. Meer as 80% verwydering van yttrium en erbium kon bereik word met ‘n optimum HCl konsentrasie van 5 M en meer as 90% seldsame aardmetale (spesifiek Y, Er en Yb) verwydering vanaf die organiese fase met 5 M swaelsuur. Seldsame aardmetale en yster verwydering kon verbeter word deur die organies-tot-waterfase (O:A) verhouding te verminder tot so laag as 0.5 en deur die temperatuur te verhoog. Stroping het in ‘n S-kurwe verhoog soos die temperatuur verhoog het, en het afgeplat teen 50°C. Die effek van die O:A verhouding was belangriker as die effek van temperatuur op stroping. Die resultate het goeie herhaalbaarheid gewys, en is nie deur massaoordrag beperk nie. Statistiese modelle is saamgestel om die eksperimentele data wat vir Y, Yb, Er en Fe verkry is vir stroping met swaelsuur en soutsuur te pas. Al die modelle het afhanklikheid van die suurkonsentrasie en kwadratiese suurkonsentrasie gewys en interaksie effekte tussen die O:A verhouding, temperatuur en suurkonsentrasie was belangrik. Die modelle is saamgestel vir die eksperimentele data wat verkry is vanaf stroping van ‘n sintetiese organiese fase en is toe getoets op resultate wat verkry is vanaf stroping van die aanleg se organiese fase. Die volgende drie proses-oplossings is oorweeg vir implementering op ‘n aanlegskaal vir die verwydering van seldsame aardmetale vanaf die organiese fase gedurende sink oplosmiddel ekstraksie: Swaelsuur stroping menger-afskeidingstenk of stropingskolom, verbetering van die bestaande HCl aanleg en vervanging van die organiese inventaris. ‘n Moontlike oksaalsuur presipitasie proses om waarde vanaf die seldsame aardmetale as by-produk te verkry is ook bespreek. Daar is tot die gevolgtrekking gekom dat die huidige proses wat HCl gebruik om yster en seldsame aardmetale van die organiese fase af te stroop, die beste praktiese en finansieel vatbare proses huidiglik is. Waarde kan vanaf die seldsame aardmetale verkry word as ‘n seldsame aardmetale – oksaalsuur presipitasie afdeling wat finansieel haalbaar is daargestel kan word.

Diante da redução dos teores de níquel em minérios sulfetados, novos estudos têm sido realizados para extração e processamento de minérios lateríticos. O processamento destes minérios gera soluções contendo cobalto, que poderia ser recuperado por extração por solventes. No entanto, esta tecnologia possui riscos com relação à saúde ocupacional e incêndios. Como possível alternativa, a eletrodiálise é uma tecnologia utilizada para recuperação de metais de fontes líquidas, permitindo a separação de cátions e ânions pela aplicação de uma corrente elétrica em dois eletrodos. Quando comparada à extração por solventes, possui menor consumo de produtos químicos, pouca geração de resíduos e operação com menor dispêndio energético. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar uma rota hidrometalúrgica para recuperação de uma solução sintética de sulfatos de cobalto (II), magnésio (II), manganês (II) e cromo (III), simulando concentrações obtidas numa etapa do processamento industrial de minérios lateríticos. Para tanto, foi construída uma unidade de eletrodiálise em acrílico transparente, onde foram posicionadas as membranas de troca catiônicas e aniônicas. Nas extremidades da unidade foram posicionados eletrodos de titânio revestidos com óxido de titânio e óxido de rutênio (70TiO2/30RuO2), para o cátodo e ânodo. Tanto as membranas quanto os eletrodos possuíram área de 16 cm². Duas configurações de eletrodiálise foram estudadas, uma visando à recuperação de íons e de ácido sulfúrico, e outra visando à concentração de íons. Posteriormente, a partir da solução concentrada, foi avaliada a recuperação do cobalto por três sistemas, eletrorrecuperação, precipitação e troca iônica. A eletrorrecuperação utilizou cátodos de cobalto, alumínio e aço inoxidável, e ânodos de titânio revestido (70TiO2/30RuO2). A precipitação utilizou hidróxido de sódio e ditionito de sódio. A troca iônica foi realizada em batelada, utilizando cinco tipos de resinas. No caso do sistema com cinco compartimentos, após 64 h aplicando-se densidade de corrente de 6,25 mA.cm-², os resultados indicaram extração aproximada de 76 % para Co2+, 69 % para Mn2+, 79 % para Mg2+ e 32 % para Cr3+. A recuperação de ácido sulfúrico foi comprovada pelo aumento da concentração de H2SO4 de 0,01 para 0,1 mol.L-1 no compartimento anódico. No caso do sistema com seis compartimentos, após 136 h aplicando-se densidade de corrente de 6,64 mA.cm-², os resultados indicaram extração aproximada de 95 % para Co2+, Mn2+, Mg2+ e SO42-, e de 85 % para Cr3+. O aumento da concentração no compartimento concentrado foi de 178 % para Co2+, 145 % para Mn2+, 165 % para Mg2+ e 79 % para Cr3+. A eletrorrecuperação de cobalto foi alcançada somente com cátodo de aço inoxidável, permitindo extração de 80 % do cobalto da solução, com densidade de corrente de 14,3 a 28,6 mA.cm-2. Não foi detectada deposição de cromo. A precipitação por hidróxido não permitiu a separação do cobalto do cromo, e a precipitação do cobalto por ditionito de sódio não foi detectada. A resina M4195 teve o melhor rendimento de adsorção para o cobalto em relação ao cromo, alcançando quase 40 % de extração. Os resultados confirmaram a viabilidade da eletrodiálise para produzir soluções tratadas e soluções concentradas de íons. A troca iônica e a eletrorrecuperação tiveram os resultados mais promissores para recuperação de cobalto. Dessa forma, a rota proposta pode ser uma solução complementar para recuperação de cobalto advindo do processamento de minérios lateríticos, em relação à técnica de extração por solventes. / Due to the depletion of nickel contents in sulfide ores, new studies have been carried out to extract and process lateritic ores. The processing of these ores generates solutions containing cobalt, which could be recovered by solvent extraction. However, this technology has occupational health and fire hazards. As a possible alternative, electrodialysis is a technology used for the recovery of metals from liquid sources, allowing the separation of cations and anions by the application of an electric current in two electrodes. When compared to solvent extraction, it has lower consumption of chemicals, less generation of waste and energy operation. The objective of this work was to evaluate a hydrometallurgical route to recover a synthetic sulfate solution containing cobalt (II), magnesium (II), manganese (II) and chromium (III), simulating concentrations obtained in one step of the industrial processing of lateritic ores. For this, a transparent acrylic electrodialysis unit was constructed, with cationic and anionic ion exchange membranes. At the extremities of the unit, titanium electrodes coated with titanium oxide and ruthenium oxide (70TiO2/30RuO2), were positioned as the cathode and anode. Both the membranes and electrodes had 16 cm² of area. Two electrodialysis configurations were studied, one aiming at the recovery of ions and sulfuric acid, and the other aiming at the concentration of ions. Thereafter, from the concentrated solution, the cobalt recover was evaluated by three systems, electrowinning, precipitation and ion exchange. The electrowinning tests were performed with cobalt, aluminum and stainless steel cathodes. Titanium coated electrodes (70TiO2/30RuO2) were used as anode. In the precipitation tests, sodium hydroxide and sodium dithionite were used. The ion exchange tests were performed in batch mode, using five types of resins. For the system with five compartments, after 64 h applying a current density of 6.25 mA.cm-², the results indicated an approximate extraction of 76 % for Co2+, 69 % for Mn2+, 79 % for Mg2+ and 32 % for Cr3+. The recovery of sulfuric acid in the anode compartment was confirmed by the increase of the H2SO4 concentration from 0.01 to 0.1 mol.L-1. For the system with six compartments, after 136 h applying a current density of 6.64 mA.cm-², the results indicated an approximate extraction of 95 % for Co2+, Mn2+, Mg2+ and SO42-, and 85 % for Cr3+. The concentration increase in the concentrate compartment was 178 % for Co2+, 145 % for Mn2+, 165 % for Mg2+ and 79 % for Cr3+. The cobalt electrowinning was reached only with the stainless steel cathode, allowing an extraction of 80 % of the cobalt from the solution, with current density from 14.3 to 28.6 mA.cm-². No chromium deposition was detected. Precipitation by hydroxide did not allow the separation of cobalt from chromium, and precipitation of cobalt by sodium dithionite was not detected. The M4195 resin had the best adsorption yield for cobalt over chromium, achieving almost 40 % extraction. The results confirmed the feasibility of the electrodialysis to produce treated solutions and concentrated solutions of ions. Ionic exchange and electrowinning had the most promising results for cobalt recovery. Thus, the application of the proposed route may be a complementary solution for the recovery of cobalt from lateritic ores processing, compared to solvent extraction.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Na drenagem ácida de mina a contaminação pelo manganês é notável e se caracteriza como um dos principais problemas ambientais vivenciados pela indústria mineradora. Este elemento tem sido frequentemente encontrado em concentrações muito acima do limite permitido para o lançamento que, de acordo Resolução CONAMA No. 430, é de 1,0 mg/L. Neste contexto, a precipitação oxidativa com KMnO4, quando empregada para recuperação e remoção do manganês, se destaca como um processo promissor. Neste trabalho, a primeira etapa constou de um planejamento estatístico onde foi possível a avaliação da influência de parâmetros de processo e a modelagem empírica da precipitação oxidativa do Mn II em amostras preparadas em laboratório. Foram avaliados quatro parâmetros: a dose de KMnO4, o pH, o tempo de reação e a concentração da solução de KMnO4. Apenas a dose de KMnO4, o pH e a interação entre estes dois fatores apresentaram influência significativa sobre o processo de precipitação oxidativa do manganês. Na etapa de otimização, a análise do aspecto das superfícies de resposta, descritas por modelos matemáticos empíricos, permitiu avaliar as combinações entre o pH e a dose de KMnO4 que contribuem para uma maior eficiência do processo. Os melhores resultados foram obtidos para doses de KMnO4 de 1,63 mg KMnO4/mg Mn II em pH 3,0 e 1,54 mg KMnO4/mg Mn II em pH 5,0. As remoções de manganês observadas nestas condições foram 99,84% e 99,90% respectivamente, para uma concentração inicial de 100 mg/L. Posteriormente, o estudo cinético do processo utilizando soluções de Mn II preparadas em laboratório, mostrou que a precipitação do manganês com KMnO4 apresenta a vantagem de ser rápida. A concentração de Mn II decresceu exponencialmente atingindo limites inferiores a 1,0 mg/L em menos de 10 minutos de reação. A cinética da reação foi favorecida com a elevação do pH. Os precipitados formados apresentaram baixa cristalinidade com pequenas diferenças morfológicas em função do pH do meio, sendo a fase mineralógica encontrada a birnessita (MnO2), de acordo com espectroscopia RAMAN. Estas observações experimentais estão de acordo com os resultados da modelagem realizada com o programa PHREEQC, na qual a presença do óxido de manganês MnO2 foi confirmada nas fases birnessita, pirolusita e nsutita. Na etapa final, amostras de drenagem ácida oriundas de uma antiga mina de urânio desativada foram caracterizadas quimicamente e submetidas ao tratamento com KMnO4 em escala laboratorial. A caracterização das amostras mostrou que os parâmetros que estão fora da especificação segundo a legislação são o manganês, o fluoreto e também o pH. Além disso, as concentrações de cálcio, alumínio e sulfato são relativamente elevadas. O ensaios de precipitação oxidativa foram conduzidos em valores de pH 3,0, 5,0 e 7,0. Em pH 7,0 o processo mostrou-se mais eficiente, não apenas em relação a remoção de Mn II, que alcançou níveis de aproximadamente 99 %, mas também em termos da velocidade de reação, sendo o equilíbrio atingido em 10 min de reação. Verificou-se uma remoção mais significativa dos outros componentes como ferro, alumínio e urânio na etapa de ajuste do pH para 7,0 com NaOH. Os precipitados formados na etapa de oxidação não apresentaram cristalinidade, contudo foram identificadas as fases birnessita (MnO2), hausmanita (Mn3O4) e manganita (MnOOH), de acordo com espectroscopia RAMAN. Além do manganês, foram detectados nos precipitados: alumínio, cálcio, zinco, urânio, terras raras, oxigênio e flúor. A simulação com o PHREEQC permitiu a identificação das fases termodinamicamente possíveis em cada etapa do processo. Na etapa de ajuste de pH foram formadas, principalmente, fases contendo ferro, urânio, alumínio e o manganês. A etapa de adição do agente oxidante foi caracterizada por remoções de manganês nas fases birnessita (MnO2), bixbyita (Mn2O3), hausmanita (Mn3O4), manganita (MnOOH), nsutita (MnO2), pirolusita (MnO2) e cálcio na forma de fluorita (CaF2) / The manganese contamination present in acid mine drainage is outstanding as one of the main environmental issues experienced by the mining sector. This element has been frequently found in concentrations much higher than the allowed limit for discharge which is 1.0 mg/L according to Brazilian legislation, CONAMA No. 430. In this context, the oxidative precipitation by KMnO4, when employed to recover and remove manganese is a promising process. In this work, throughout a statistical design it was possible to assess the influence of process parameters as well as the empirical modeling of oxidative precipitation of Mn II in laboratory prepared samples. The experiments consisted of evaluating four parameters: the KMnO4 dose, pH, reaction time and concentration of KMnO4 solution. Only the dose of KMnO4, the pH and the interaction between these two factors have shown significant influence. In the optimization stage, by observing the aspect of the response surfaces, described by empirical mathematical models, it was possible to find out the combinations between pH and KMnO4 dose that could increase the process efficiency. The best results were obtained throughout trials conduct at pH 3.0 with KMnO4 ratio of 1.63 mg KMnO4/mg Mn II and at pH 5.0 with ratio of 1.54 mg KMnO4/mg Mn II. The manganese removals under these conditions were 99.84% and 99.90%, respectively. Subsequently, the kinetics study was carried out by using solutions of Mn II prepared in the laboratory. The results have shown that the precipitation of manganese by KMnO4 has the advantage of being fast. The concentration of Mn II decreases exponentially reaching the lower limit of 1.0 mg/L around 10 minutes of reaction. Additionally, the kinetics of the reaction is favored with increasing pH. The produced precipitates have low crystallinity and show slight morphologic differences according to the pH assessed. The main mineral phase identified by RAMAN spectroscopy was birnessite (MnO2). These experimental observations match with the modeling results performed withPHREEQC, in which the presence of manganese oxide MnO2 was identified as birnessite, pyrolusite and nsutita. In the final step, samples of acid mine drainage originated from one former and inactive uranium mine were chemically characterized and underwent with KMnO4 in bench scale. The samples characterization showed that manganese, fluoride and the pH are beyond limits set by legislation. Furthermore, the calcium, aluminum and sulphate are present in relatively high concentrations. The oxidative precipitation trials were carried out at pH 3.0, 5.0 and 7.0. At pH 7.0 the process was more efficient for the removal of Mn II, which accomplished levels of approximately 99%, and also in terms of reaction rate, the equilibrium was achieved within 10 min of reaction. Under the same condition i.e., at pH 7.0, there was an increase in the removal of other components such as iron, aluminum and uranium. The precipitates formed were not crystalline; nevertheless it was possible to identified the phases birnessite (MnO2), and possibly hausmanita (Mn3O4) and manganite (MnOOH) by RAMAN spectroscopy. Besides manganese, the species aluminum, calcium, zinc, uranium, rare earths, oxygen and fluorine were also detected in the precipitated. The simulation with PHREEQC enabled the identification of thermodynamically possible phases at each stage of the process. In the step of pH adjustment, essentially, phases containing iron, uranium, manganese and aluminum are formed. The adding of KMnO4 is characterized by manganese and calcium removal as birnessite (MnO2), bixbyite (Mn2O3), hausmaninte (Mn3O4), manganite (MnOOH), nsutite (MnO2), pyrolusite (MnO2) and fluorite (CaF2).

Este trabalho apresenta o estudo de recuperação de índio (In) e zinco (Zn) presentes em telas de monitores de computadores sucateados, por meio de técnicas hidrometalúrgicas. O trabalho foi subdividido em duas partes distintas: dissolução dos metais In e Zn mediante digestão ácida do pó de revestimento da tela de monitores e separação dos metais pela técnica de extração por solventes. Na etapa de dissolução dos metais, investigou-se a influência das seguintes variáveis de processo: tipo de reagente, relação ácido/amostra, tempo de reação e temperatura. Após a otimização dos parâmetros do processo, obteve-se uma dissolução de índio superior a 95% e de Zn superior a 99,5%. Foi obtido um licor contendo 9,8 g/L de zinco, 1,49 g/L de índio e 102 g/L de sulfato, contendo como impureza 0,016 g/L de ferro, e acidez de 2,2 mol/L (pH = 0,34). Após a definição das melhores condições de abertura química, a amostra foi processada para a obtenção do licor para a realização dos experimentos de extração por solventes. Foram realizados experimentos descontínuos de extração por solventes para a verificação da viabilidade técnica e melhores condições de separação dos metais, e um experimento contínuo para o carregamento do solvente. Na etapa de extração, as variáveis de processo investigadas foram: tipo de extratante, pH do licor e tempo de reação. Os experimentos foram realizados na relação volumétrica aquoso/orgânico (A/O) igual a 1 e concentração de extratante de 1,0 mol/L. Os extratantes investigados foram: DEHPA, IONQUEST 801 e CYANEX 272. O estudo das variáveis foi realizado apenas com os dois primeiros extratantes. Os experimentos de reextração foram realizados com HCl e H2SO4, na relação volumétrica de 1:1 e em diferentes concentrações dos ácidos. Os experimentos de bancada indicaram que a separação dos metais pode ser realizada usando DEHPA 1,0 mol/L como extratante, o H2SO4 1,0 mol/L como agente de lavagem, para a reextração dos elementos coextraídos com o índio (principalmente Zn), e HCl 3,0 mol/L para a reextração do In do orgânico carregado. / This work presents the study of recovery of indium (In) and zinc (Zn) present in computer monitor screens by means of hydrometallurgical techniques. This work was divided into two distinct parts: one is the dissolution of the metals In and Zn through acid digestion of the sample and the separation of the metals through solvent extraction technique. In the acid dissolution, the influence of the following process variables was investigated: type of reagent, acid/sample ratio, time of reaction and temperature. Following the optimisation of the parameters of the process, dissolution of indium above 98% and of Zinc over 99.5% was achieved. A liquor containing 9.8 g/L of zinc, 1.49 g/L of indium and 102 g/L of sulphate having as impurity 0.016 g/L of iron, and acidity of 2.2 mol/L (pH = 0.34) was obtained. After the optimization of the chemical opening conditions, the sample were processed in order to obtain the liquor for the solvent extraction experiments. Batch experiments of solvent extraction aiming at verifying the technical viability and best conditions for the separation of the metals and a continuous experiment to load the solvent were carried out. In the extraction phase, the process variables investigated were: type of extractant, pH of the liquor, and reaction time. The experiments were carried out at an aqueous/organic (A/O) volumetric ratio equal 1:1 and concentration of extractant 1.0 mol/L. The extractants investigated were DEHPA, IONQUEST 801 and CYANEX 272. The study of the variables was carried out with DEHPA and IONQUEST 801. The stripping experiments were carried out with HCl and H2SO4, at a volumetric ratio 1 with different acids concentrations. The batch experiments indicated that the separation of the metals In and Zn can be done using DEHPA 1 mol/L as extractant, H2SO4 1 mol/L as scrubbing agent and HCl 3 mol/L as stripping agent. After defining the best conditions for the extraction, scrubbing and stripping steps a continuous experiment was programmed. The McCabe-Thiele diagrams indicated that 3 extractions stages and 7 stripping stages was enough to extract and strip the In from the liquor and the loaded organic respectively. Due to the small amount of the liquor, the continuous experiment contemplate only the extraction and scrubbing steps. The experiment was done in mixer-settler cells, with capacity of 70 mL in the mixer and 250 mL in the settler, in a counter current system. The stripping step was carried out in batches simulating the counter current system. The continuous experiment (extraction and scrubbing steps) were carried out with the use of DEHPA 1.0 mol/L as the extractant agent and a solution of H2SO4 1.0 mol/L as the scrubbing agent in order to remove the impurities extracted. Four extraction stages and 4 stages were employed in each step, using a volumetric ratio A/O equal 5:1 in the extraction and a volumetric ration O/A equal 4:1 in the scrubbing step. A loaded organic containing 7.5 g/L of In and 0.003 g/L of Zn and a raffinad containing 9.4 g/L Zn and less than 0.001 g/L of In were obtained from a liquor containing 9.8 g/L and 1.49 g/L. The content of the metals in the stripped solution were 26.7 g/L de In e 0.001 g/L de Zn.

O aumento no consumo mundial de novos aparelhos eletroeletrônicos aliado à redução no tempo de vida útil destes equipamentos tem como principal consequência ao meio ambiente a geração de resíduos. No Brasil, com a instituição da Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos, criou-se a obrigatoriedade legal da responsabilidade dos fabricantes pela logística reversa dos equipamentos eletroeletrônicos, incentivando pesquisas para o desenvolvimento dos métodos de reciclagem e tratamento dos materiais descartados. O processo de lixiviação foi avaliado como alternativa à etapa de separação magnética presente nas atuais rotas hidrometalúrgicas para recuperação de metais valiosos de placas de circuito impresso. Para avaliar a composição das placas, foi realizado ensaio de dissolução em água régia. As amostras foram moídas e submetidas a ensaios de lixiviação com ácido sulfúrico nas concentrações de 1 e 2mol/L, às temperaturas de 75ºC, 85ºC e 95ºC, durante 24 horas. Com ácido sulfúrico 2mol/L a 95ºC, o tempo necessário para se obter 100% de extração do ferro foi de 2 horas. Nestas condições, não foi detectada a presença de cobre dissolvido. A cinética da reação é controlada por reação química e obedece a equação .=1(1)3. A energia de ativação aparente do processo equivale a 90kJ/mol. / The increase in world consumption of new electronic equipment along with the reduction of its lifespan has brought an environmental issue due to waste generation. In Brazil, the National Solid Waste Policy establishes that manufacturers should respond for the reverse logistics of consumer electronics devices. This policy encouraged research to the development of methods of treatment and recycling of discarded materials. Acid leaching was analyzed as an alternative to the magnetic separation process widely used in hydrometallurgical routes for precious metals recovery from PCBs. Aqua regia was used to dissolve PCBs and thus characterize samples. The samples were milled and leached with sulfuric acid 1 and 2mol/L, at temperatures of 75ºC, 85ºC and 95ºC, during 24 hours. With sulfuric acid 2mol/L at 95ºC, the necessary time for 100% iron extraction was 2 hours. Under these conditions, no copper was detected. Reaction kinetics is controlled by chemical reaction and follows the expression .=1(1)3. Apparent activation energy equals 90kJ/mol.

Esta tese descreve o desenvolvimento de aplicações de nanopartículas superparamagnéticas de magnetita, devidamente funcionalizadas, nas seguintes áreas: Sensoriamento - As nanopartículas superparamagnéticas foram utilizadas em conjunto com um pequeno sistema analítico especialmente desenvolvido para esse trabalho, na análise de diversos metais pesados de grande relevância ambiental. O ponto de destaque da metodologia é o grande incremento em intensidade do sinal analítico em função da pré-concentração que pode ser realizada mediante utilização das nanopartículas superparamagnéticas e aplicação de um campo magnético externo. Remediação ambiental - A grande afinidade das nanopartículas por diversos materiais foi aproveitada na obtenção de um sistema de remediação ambiental que combina as propriedades magnéticas das nanopartículas e as propriedades adsorventes de carvão ativado. Esse sistema foi testado em contaminantes orgânicos e inorgânicos e permite uma maneira eficiente e inovadora de remoção de contaminantes em meio aquoso. Nanohidrometalurgia magnética - Os efeitos de pré-concentração de nanopartículas superparamagnéticas modificadas foram utilizados para melhorar a eficiência dos processos hidrometalúrgicos atuais para produção de cobre metálico a partir de minérios com baixa concentração do metal, chegando - se ao estado da arte da técnica. / This thesis describes the development of applications of superparamagnetic magnetite nanoparticles, properly functionalized, in the following areas: Sensing - The superparamagnetic nanoparticles were used in conjunction with a small analytical system specially developed in this work for analysis of several heavy metals of great environmental significance. The important point of this methodology is the general increase in intensity of the analytical signal as a function of pre-concentration may be performed by use of superparamagnetic nanoparticles under the influence of an external magnetic field. Environmental Remediation - The high affinity of nanoparticles for various materials was used to obtain an environmental remediation system that combines the properties of magnetic nanoparticles and the properties of activated carbon adsorbents. This system was tested in organic and inorganic contaminants and provides a novel and efficient removal of contaminants in the aqueous medium. Magnetic Nanohydrometalurgy - The effects of pre-concentration fro the funcionalized superparamagnetic nanoparticles modified were used to improve the efficiency of the actual hydrometallurgical processes used for production of metallic copper from ores with low concentration of metal, showing good perspectives of improving the state of the art of this technique.

Esta tese descreve o desenvolvimento de aplicações de nanopartículas superparamagnéticas de magnetita, devidamente funcionalizadas, nas seguintes áreas: Sensoriamento - As nanopartículas superparamagnéticas foram utilizadas em conjunto com um pequeno sistema analítico especialmente desenvolvido para esse trabalho, na análise de diversos metais pesados de grande relevância ambiental. O ponto de destaque da metodologia é o grande incremento em intensidade do sinal analítico em função da pré-concentração que pode ser realizada mediante utilização das nanopartículas superparamagnéticas e aplicação de um campo magnético externo. Remediação ambiental - A grande afinidade das nanopartículas por diversos materiais foi aproveitada na obtenção de um sistema de remediação ambiental que combina as propriedades magnéticas das nanopartículas e as propriedades adsorventes de carvão ativado. Esse sistema foi testado em contaminantes orgânicos e inorgânicos e permite uma maneira eficiente e inovadora de remoção de contaminantes em meio aquoso. Nanohidrometalurgia magnética - Os efeitos de pré-concentração de nanopartículas superparamagnéticas modificadas foram utilizados para melhorar a eficiência dos processos hidrometalúrgicos atuais para produção de cobre metálico a partir de minérios com baixa concentração do metal, chegando - se ao estado da arte da técnica. / This thesis describes the development of applications of superparamagnetic magnetite nanoparticles, properly functionalized, in the following areas: Sensing - The superparamagnetic nanoparticles were used in conjunction with a small analytical system specially developed in this work for analysis of several heavy metals of great environmental significance. The important point of this methodology is the general increase in intensity of the analytical signal as a function of pre-concentration may be performed by use of superparamagnetic nanoparticles under the influence of an external magnetic field. Environmental Remediation - The high affinity of nanoparticles for various materials was used to obtain an environmental remediation system that combines the properties of magnetic nanoparticles and the properties of activated carbon adsorbents. This system was tested in organic and inorganic contaminants and provides a novel and efficient removal of contaminants in the aqueous medium. Magnetic Nanohydrometalurgy - The effects of pre-concentration fro the funcionalized superparamagnetic nanoparticles modified were used to improve the efficiency of the actual hydrometallurgical processes used for production of metallic copper from ores with low concentration of metal, showing good perspectives of improving the state of the art of this technique.

L’objectif de cette thèse est de modéliser et d’optimiser l’unité de séparation du cobalt et du nickel par extraction liquide-liquide d’un procédé hydrométallurgique. La méthodologie adoptée a consisté dans un premier temps à étudier et modéliser séparément les équilibres d’extraction de chaque métal présent dans la solution industrielle (cobalt, nickel, magnésium, manganèse et zinc), par l’acide phosphinique CYANEX® 272 dilué dans un mélange d’hydrocarbures inertes. Un modèle thermodynamique multi-élémentaire permettant de simuler l’extraction de mélanges des 5 métaux a ensuite été élaboré sur la base des équilibres d’extraction et des constantes apparentes associées ainsi obtenus. Dans un second temps, le modèle multi-élémentaire a été utilisé pour modéliser le procédé continu de séparation du cobalt et du nickel. Ce procédémulti-étagé à contre-courant comporte plusieurs étapes : l’extraction, le lavage, l’élution cobalt et l’élution zinc. Dans le modèle développé, les concentrations en métaux dans les deux phases, les pH dans les différents étages ainsi que la consommation en réactifs, sont calculés à l’aide d’une méthode itérative. Cet outil de simulation du procédé a permis d’identifier des conditions opératoires optimales, pour lesquelles le rendement d’extraction du cobalt de 95% visé est atteint avec une économie en soude tout à fait significative. Les conditions proposées ont ensuite été validées par des campagnes de tests en continu à l’échelle pilote. / This thesis work aims at modelling and optimizing the step of cobalt and nickel separation by solvent extraction, for a hydrometallurgical process. The first stage of the adopted methodology consisted in studying and modelling separately the extraction equilibria of each metal present in the industrial feed solution (cobalt, nickel, magnesium, manganese and zinc) by the phosphinic acid CYANEX® 272 diluted in an inert hydrocarbon mixture. The resulting extraction reactions and their associated equilibrium constants are the basis of a multi-element thermodynamic model that simulates the batch extraction of mixtures of the 5 metals. The next stage of the study consisted in modelling the continuous process of cobalt and nickel separation, based on the multi-element thermodynamic model. This multi-stage process operated counter-currently includes different steps : extraction, scrubbing, cobalt stripping and zinc stripping. In the model developed, the metal concentrations in both phases, the pH in all the stages, and the reagent consumptions are calculated by an iterative method. This simulation tool allowed identifying optimal operational conditions, for which the cobalt extraction yield of 95% is reached with significant caustic soda savings. Then the proposed conditions have been validated through continuous pilot tests.

Em virtude das várias aplicações do cobre, acredita-se que a demanda por esse metal irá aumentar nos próximos anos, e consequentemente, o seu preço. Dessa forma, as mineradoras enfrentam o desafio de aprimorar e aperfeiçoar os processos produtivos a fim de atender sua futura demanda. Frações de cobre podem ser encontradas no licor de lixiviação do minério limonítico de níquel e a troca iônica com adsorvente sólido é uma das tecnologias disponíveis para promover a sua recuperação e o seu reaproveitamento. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo estudar o processo de adsorção dos íons de cobre presente em um licor sintético baseado no licor de lixiviação atmosférica do minério limonítico de níquel através de um sistema de resina de troca iônica utilizando a resina quelante Dowex XUS43605. A viabilidade da técnica escolhida foi analisada em função da influência de parâmetros por meio de ensaios em batelada e coluna de leito fixo utilizando uma solução sintética. O tempo de contato, o pH, a massa de resina e a temperatura foram avaliados. A resina quelante Dowex XUS43605 mostrou-se mais seletiva para o cobre em pH igual a 1,5, tendo sido definido esse pH como o de trabalho. Verificou-se que 1g é uma dosagem suficiente para recuperar o cobre da solução em escala laboratorial considerando 50mL de solução sintética. O incremento na temperatura não alterou a adsorção do cobre pela resina, sendo determinado que a temperatura de trabalho esteja entre 25-35°C. O modelo de isotermas de adsorção de Langmuir apresentou melhor ajuste entre a resina e o cobre do que os modelos de Freundlich e de Temkin. O modelo cinético pseudosegunda-ordem descreveu o processo de adsorção considerando a quimiossorção como a etapa limitante. Os ensaios em coluna de leito fixo possibilitaram a produção de uma solução com concentração reduzida de Cu2+ em 93% na etapa de carregamento. Pela etapa de eluição com ácido sulfúrico (H2SO4) 1mol/L, obteve-se uma solução 10 vezes mais concentrada em Cu2+ com relação à solução sintética. A solução resultante da etapa de eluição seguiu para os ensaios de precipitação, a qual permitiu a separação do cobre dos íons metálicos pela ação do agente precipitante CaCO3 e a geração de um precipitado composto por três fases: brochantite [Cu4SO4(OH)6], posnjatike [Cu4SO4(OH)6.H2O] e gesso (CaSO4.2H2O). / Considering the various applications of copper, it is believed that the demand for copper will increase in the coming years and, consequently, its price. Hence, the mining companies face the challenge of improving the productive processes to supply their future demand. Copper fractions can be found in liquor leaching nickel limonite ore and ion exchange with solid adsorbent is one of the available technologies which promote its recovery and reuse. The present work was aimed at studying the adsorption process of copper ions present in a synthetic liquor based on the atmospheric leaching liquor of the nickel limonite ore through an ion exchange resin system using Dowex XUS43605 chelating resin. The feasibility of the chosen technique was analyzed in relation to the influence of parameters by means of batch and fixed bed tests using a synthetic solution. The contact time, pH, amount of resin and temperature were evaluated. Dowex XUS43605 chelating resin showed to be more selective for copper at pH 1.5, and this pH was defined as the working pH. It has been found that 1g is a sufficient dosage to recover copper from the solution on a laboratory scale considering 50mL of synthetic solution. The increase in temperature did not change the adsorption of the copper by the resin, and it was determined that the working temperature is between 25-35°C. The Langmuir adsorption isotherms model showed a better fit between resin and copper than the Freundlich and Temkin models. The pseudosecond-order describes the sorption process and it indicates that the rate-limiting step is chemisorption. The fixed bed column tests allowed the production of a solution with reduced concentration of Cu2+ in 93% the loading step. By the elution step with 1mol/L of sulfuric acid (H2SO4), a solution 10 times more concentrated in Cu2+ was obtained in relation to the synthetic solution. The solution from the elution step followed to the precipitation tests, which allowed the separation of copper from the metal ions by the action of the precipitating agent CaCO3 and the generation of a precipitate composed of three phases: brochantite [Cu4SO4(OH)6], posnjatike [CuSO4(OH)6.H2O] and gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O).

The work in this thesis aims to develop new systems for the more efficient recovery of metals from aqueous solution using solvent extraction. Understanding the underlying coordination chemistry to improve hydrometallurgical methods is crucial in order to meet the demand for critical metals for use in modern technologies, reduce the environment impact of recovery from primary mining deposits, and recycle valuable metals from secondary sources (e.g. mobile phones, WEEE). Chapter 2 examines the use of a simple primary amide that can load gold and other chloridometalates into a toluene phase through an outer-sphere mechanism. The loading of a variety of metals/metalloids from varying [HCl] is reported, highlighting the selectivity for gold over other metalates and chloride due to a combination of speciation of those metals and the relative ease of extraction of lower charged species (the Hofmeister bias). The advantages in loading/stripping, toxicity and mass balances compared to commercial alternatives are also outlined, in particular the efficacy of separating gold from a mixed-metal solution representative of those found in WEEE. The mode of action of the primary amide (and secondary/tertiary analogues) is determined using slope analysis, Karl-Fischer water determinations, NMR and MS measurements, EXAFS and computational models. The extraction occurs by the dynamic assembly of multiple amide ligands and gold metalates to generate supramolecular clusters held together through hydrogen-bonding and electrostatic interactions. The secondary and tertiary amides are found to be able to extract monoanionic metalates in a similar manner as the primary amide, although clustering occurs to a lesser extent. Whilst the secondary and tertiary amides are stronger gold extractants than the primary amide, they are not observed to be as successful when extracting from a mixed-metal solution. Instead, a 3rd phase is seen to form from these amides and some metals at higher metal concentrations, which removes the ligands from solution and prevents successful extraction of gold. Chapter 3 builds on an observation in Chapter 2 that a synergistic combination of a simple primary amide and an amine can extract chloridometalates that are typically difficult to solvent extract, such as iridium(III) and rhodium(III). These metalates, complexes with increased anionic charge and varying speciation in aqueous solution, are typically recovered last in a metal production flowsheet. The combination of a primary amide and primary amine was found to be the most effective at extracting the chloridometalates; the strength and strippability of the system is of particular interest in the context of rhodium(III) recovery as this metal currently is not extracted in commercial circuits. The mode of action of the system is investigated using similar techniques to Chapter 2, and reveals that the amine is the more important component of the synergistic mixture compared to the amide, with an improvement in extraction observed when both components are present. Rh(III) is extracted as a mixture of RhCl6 3– and RhCl5(OH2)2– complexes, dependent on the initial [HCl] concentration and the age of the initial aqueous solution. Chapter 4 investigates the feasibility of the recovery of lanthanides as anionic metalates from chloride-, nitrate- or sulfate-rich feeds. Reagents that have been found to be strong chloridometalate extractants, fragmented versions of these, and ‘classic’ commercial outer-sphere reagents are studied. The variations of ligand, anion type and concentration, proton concentration and solvent for the extraction of lanthanides is investigated. However, despite these permutations, no extraction of lanthanides is observed due to the difficulty in extracting more highly hydrated species and the lack of stability of the metalates in aqueous solution.