Ce manuscrit présente trois expériences menées dans le cadre de la fusion nucléaire par confinement inertiel. La première expérience porte sur l'étude la propagation d'un faisceau d'électrons rapides dans un plasma pré-comprimé dans le cadre du schémas d'allumage rapide. Deux expériences sur la génération d'onde de choc dans des plasmas ont été menées dans le cadre du schéma d'allumage par choc. La première expérience a été consacre à l'étude le la propagation d'un faisceau d'électrons rapides dans une cible comprimée. L'implosion de la cible avec une géométrie cylindrique a été menée avec l'installation laser GEKKO XII (ILE Osaka, Japon). Le faisceau d'électrons rapides a été injecté en utilisant l'installation laser LFEX (_1019W/cm2). et sa propagation à travers le cylindre comprimé a été observée avec plusieurs diagnostics X. Cette expérience a démontré l'effet d'un guidage du faisceau d'électrons rapides résultant du champ magnétique auto-généré. Par ailleurs, les résultats de cette expérience ont été en bon accord avec deux des simulation numériques. Cette étude a fait l'objet de la publication Approach to the study of fast electron transport in cylindrically imploded targets, Laser and particle Beams, 33, 525-534, (2015). Deux autres expériences ont été réalisées pour l’étude de la propagation de chocs forts créés par laser dans un plasma. Celles-ci ont été réalisées avec différentes installations laser.Dans la première expérience avec le laser Gekko Xll, nous avons observé la création et la propagation de deux ondes de choc successives dans des plasmas d’ablation de CH et de Be. L’objectif de caractériser l’amplification d’un choc transmis par la collision des deux chocscontre propagatifs a été partiellement réalisé. La comparaison des résultats expérimentauxà des simulations hydrodynamiques a permis d’établir une amplification du choc d’unfacteur 2 en pression pour les conditions expérimentales réalisées. Les tirs sur une cible deBe a permis de développer et valider les outils d’exploitation de la propagation de deuxchocs par radiographie X. La deuxième expérience a été réalisée avec laser PHELIX de GSI(Darmstadt, Allemagne). Le but de cette expérience était d’étudier la génération de chocsforts qui ont été utilisés pour étudier l’équations d’état du carbone dans le domaine WDMpertinent pour le planétologie. Les conditions de pression et de densité pour le carboneont été obtenues en déduisant la pression et la vitesse de l’onde de choc des diagnosticschronométriques employés dans cette expérience. Des états du diamant en phase liquidemétallique pour des pressions de l’ordre de 7 Mbar et des températures de 15,000 degrésont été obtenus. / This manuscript presents three experiments conducted as part of a nuclear fusion byinertial confinement. The first experiment is the study of the fast electron beam propagationin a pre-compressed plasma in the fast ignition scheme. Two other experiments about theshock wave generation in plasmas were conducted in the ignition shock pattern.The first experiment was devoted to the study of the fast electron beam transport in a compressed target. The implosion of the target with a cylindrical geometry was carriedout with the GEKKO XII laser facility (ILE Osaka, Japan). The fast electron beam wasgenerated by the LFEX laser ( 1019W/cm2) and its propagation through the compressedcylinder was observed with several X-ray diagnostics. This experiment showed the guidingeffect of the electron beam resulting from self-generated magnetic fields. Furthermore, theresults of this experiment were in good agreement with numerical simulations. This studywas the subject of the publication Approach to the study of fast electron transport incylindrically imploded targets, Laser and Particle Beams, 33,525-534,(2015). Two other experiments were performed to study the propagation of strong shockscreated by lasers in a plasma. These were carried out with different laser systems. In the firstexperiment with the Gekko XII laser, we observed the creation and the propagation of twosuccessive shock waves in an ablation plasma in CH and Be. The objective to characterizethe amplification of a transmitted shock by the collision of two counter propagatingshocks has been partially realized. The comparison of the experimental results with thehydrodynamic simulations enabled us to confirm an amplification of the shock by a factor2 in pressure in the condition of this experiment. The shot with a Be target allowed todevelop and to validate the diagnostic method of X-ray radiography for shock propagation.The second experiment was performed with laser PHELIX GSI (Darmstadt, Germany).The purpose of this experiment was to study the generation of strong shocks. They wereapplied to study the equation of state of carbone in WDM state for the planetology. Thecondition of pressure and density for the carbon were obtained by deducting the pressureand the velocity of the shock wave chronometric diagnostics employed in this experiment.In this experiment, diamond was at the metallic liquid phase with the pressure of 7 Mbarand the temperature of 15,000 degrees

Heathlands typically experience regimes consisting of frequent and intense fires. These fire regimes play important roles in the lifecycles and population dynamics of all species in these communities. Prescribed fire is commonly applied to heathlands to minimise the risk of wildfires as well as to promote biodiversity. Ignitions in heathlands tend to either be unsustainable, or quickly develop into rapidly spreading intense fires. This presents a major problem for the application of prescribed fire and is the primary focus of this thesis. Heathland ignition has been investigated in three sections; litter ignition; vertical development of fire into the shrub layer; and horizontal spread through the shrub layer. These were studied in laboratory experiments using miniature versions of field fuels. Ignition success in litter layers was related to the dead fuel moisture content. Litter type, ignition source, and presence of wind were found to affect the range of ignitable fuel moisture contents of a litter bed. The effect of litter type was best explained by density. Dense litter beds required drier conditions for ignition than low density litter beds. The vertical development of fire into shrubs was mostly dependent on live fuel moisture content, but crown base height, presence of wind, ignition source, shrub height and the percentage of dead elevated fuel were also important. Horizontal spread of fires through shrub layers was most affected by the presence of a litter layer, with nearly all ignitions successful when there was an underlying litter fire. Fire spread would only occur in shrubs without a litter layer when the shrub layer was dense and dry, or had a substantial dead fuel component. Spread was more likely to be sustained when there was wind. Models predicting the moisture content of dead fuels were tested in heathlands, and as would be expected those that can be calibrated for different fuel types were found to have the best performance. Fuel moisture content and fuel load models were reviewed for heathlands, and a number of recommendations for future research were made.

Commercial fuels are mixtures with large numbers of components. Continuous thermodynamics is a technique for modelling fuel mixtures using a probability density function rather than dealing with each discreet component. The mean and standard deviation of the distribution are then used to model the chemical reactions of the mixture. This thesis develops the necessary theory to apply the technique of continuous thermodynamics to the oxidation reactions of hydrocarbon fuels. The theory is applied to three simplified models of hydrocarbon oxidation: a global one-step reaction, a two-step reaction with CO as the intermediate product, and the four-step reaction of Müller et al. (1992), which contains a high- and a low-temperature branch. These are all greatly simplified models of the complex reaction kinetics of hydrocarbons, and in this thesis they are applied specifically to n-paraffin hydrocarbons in the range from n-heptane to n-hexadecane. The model is tested numerically using a simple constant pressure homogeneous ignition problem using Cantera and compared to simplified and detailed mechanisms for n-heptane. The continuous thermodynamics models are able not only to predict ignition delay times and the development of temperature and species concentrations with time, but also changes in the mixture composition as reaction proceeds as represented by the mean and standard deviation of the distribution function. Continuous thermodynamics is therefore shown to be a useful tool for reactions of multicomponent mixtures, and an alternative to the "surrogate fuel" approach often used at present.

Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) combustion is an alternative combustion mode in which the fuel is homogeneously mixed with air and is auto-ignited by compression. Due to charge homogeneity, this mode is characterized by low equivalence ratios and temperatures giving simultaneously low nitric oxide (NOx) and soot in diesel engines. The conventional problem of NOx-soot trade-off is avoided in this mode due to absence of diffusion combustion. This mode can be employed at part load conditions while maintaining conventional combustion at high load thus minimizing regulatory cycle emissions and reducing cost of after-treatment systems. The present study focuses on achieving this mode in a turbocharged, common rail, direct injection, four-cylinder, heavy duty diesel engine. Specifically, the work involves a combination of three-dimensional CFD simulations and experiments on this engine to assess both traditional and novel strategies related to fuel injection. The first phase of the work involved a quasi-dimensional simulation of the engine to assess potential of achieving HCCI. This was done using a zero-dimensional, single-zone HCCI combustion model with n-heptane skeletal chemistry along with a one-dimensional model of intake and exhaust systems. The feasibility of operation with realistic knock values with high EGR rate of 60% was observed. The second aspect of the work involved three-dimensional CFD simulations of the in-cylinder process with wall film prediction to evaluate injection strategies associated with Early Direct Injection (EDI). The extended Coherent Flame Model-3Zone (ECFM-3Z) was employed for combustion simulation of conventional CI and EDI, and was validated with experimental in-cylinder pressure data from the engine. A new Uniformity Index (UI) parameter was defined to assess charge homogeneity. Results showed significant in-homogeneity and presence of wall film for EDI. Simulations were conducted to assess improvement of charge homogeneity by several strategies; narrow spray cone angle, injection timing, multiple injections, intake air heating, Port Fuel Injection (PFI) as well as combination of PFI and EDI. The maximum UI achieved by EDI was 0.78. The PFI strategy could achieve UI of 0.95; however, up to 50% of fuel remained trapped in the port after valve closure. This indicated that except EDI, none of the above-mentioned strategies could help achieve the benefits of the HCCI mode. The third part of the work involved engine experimentation to assess the EDI strategy. This strategy produced lower soot than that of conventional CI combustion with very short combustion duration, but led to high knock and NOx which is attributed to pool fire burning phenomenon of the wall film, as confirmed by CFD. An Optimized EDI (OptimEDI) strategy was then developed based on results of CFD and Design of Experiments. The Optim EDI consisted of triple injections with split ratio of 41%-45%-14% and advancing the first injection. This strategy gave 20% NOx and soot reduction over the conventional CI mode. Although this strategy gave encouraging results, there was a need for more substantial reduction in emissions without sacrificing efficiency. Hence, a novel concept of utilizing air-assisted Injection (AAI) into the EGR stream was employed, as this implied injecting very small droplets of fuel into the intake which would have sufficient residence time to evaporate before reaching the cylinder, thereby enabling HCCI. The fourth and final part of the work involved engine experimentation with AAI, and combination of OptimEDI with AAI. Results with 20% EGR showed that 5 to 10% of AAI gave further reduction in NOx but not in soot. With experiments involving 48% EGR rate, there was soot reduction of 75% due to combined AAI-EDI. NOx was negligible due to the high EGR rate. Thus, the significant contribution of this work is in proving that combining AAI with EDI as a novel injection strategy leads to substantial NOx and soot reduction.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / A constant-volume combustor is used to investigate the ignition initiated by a traversing jet of reactive hot gas, in support of combustion engine applications that include novel wave-rotor constant-volume combustion gas turbines and pre-chamber IC engines. The hot-jet ignition constant-volume combustor rig at the Combustion and Propulsion Research Laboratory at the Purdue School of Engineering and Technology at Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) was used for this study. Lean premixed combustible mixture in a rectangular cuboid constant-volume combustor is ignited by a hot-jet traversing at different fixed speeds. The hot jet is issued via a converging nozzle from a cylindrical pre-chamber where partially combusted products of combustion are produced by spark- igniting a rich ethylene-air mixture. The main constant-volume combustor (CVC) chamber uses methane-air, hydrogen-methane-air and ethylene-air mixtures in the lean equivalence ratio range of 0.8 to 0.4. Ignition delay times and ignitability of these combustible mixtures as affected by jet traverse speed, equivalence ratio, and fuel type are investigated in this study.

[EN] In the current work, the characterization of the combustion process inside a stratified pre-chamber spark ignition (PCSI) system is performed. An extensive bibliographical review about the pre-chamber systems developed from the second half of the 20th century until modern times is presented. The review shows that the latest generation systems have the potential to accomplish the emissions limits while providing high performance and low fuel consumption. Nevertheless, many efforts of the scientific community are still needed to allow the large-scale application of the technology. Indeed, based on the outstanding challenges observed, the investigation plan is developed including both experimental and numerical parts. All experiments were performed by means of the rapid compressionexpansion machine (RCEM) in the CMT-Motores Térmicos laboratory. The original cylinder head layout was modified to allow the housing of the prechamber itself, fuel injectors, spark plug, pressure transducers in both chamber, and a thermocouple. The test methodology involved the acquisition of the pressure evolution in both main chamber and pre-chamber, the piston position (used to compute the instantaneous cylinder volume), the duration of the auxiliary injection, and the spark ignition point. These are used as input for the zero-dimensional thermodynamic model which simulates the fundamental parameters aims to characterize the PCSI system working cycle. Therefore, a deeper knowledge of the mass interchanged process, induced turbulence field, heat release rate, combustion speed, and flame regime is generated. Subsequently, to calibrate the zero-dimensional model coefficients under motoring conditions, several 3D CFD simulations were carried out by means of Converge software. Hence, the results of the simulations in terms of interchanged mass and pre-chamber turbulent kinetic energy have been used to calibrate the nozzle discharge coefficient and the turbulence sub-model coefficients for all the pre-chamber geometries. Furthermore, the 3D CFD simulations outputs are analysed to fully understand the flow field structure and the local effect induced by the different nozzles at the spark activation time. The turbulent kinetic energy in terms of intensity and orientation is investigated over several relevant pre-chamber sections. The results reveal a clear relationship between the turbulence developed within the pre-chamber and the orifices structure. Straight orifices or perpendicular jets impact, promote more intense local turbulence due to direct collision while tilted orifices guarantee more homogeneity due to the swirling motion. Additionally, increase the orifice numbers shows benefits on the fluid dynamic homogeneity. Thus, preceding the experimental campaign several fundamental aspects of the system are evaluated. The cycle-to-cycle dispersion is explored by means of the statistical assessment showing low pressure peak deviation. The auxiliary injection pressure and timing are optimized for avoiding wall wetting phenomena while ensuring proper air/fuel mixing. Finally, the spark activation point is chosen as a function of the theoretically maximum turbulent flame speed. Thereby, the experimental campaign is carried out according to tests matrix, in order to evaluate the effect of the equivalence ratio of both chambers, and how the orifices diameter, number, and distribution affect the combustion process. Moreover, chemiluminescence visualization tests, performed by means of the available optical access of the RCEM, are combined with zerodimensional and 3D CFD results to shed light on the work cycle. Conclusions suggest a slightly rich mixture inside the pre-chamber combined with the highest number of tilted orifices as the better configuration for improving combustion efficiency under lean and ultra-lean main chamber mixture conditions. Nevertheless, axial orifices should be considered for further investigations. Finally, the author proposes a series of developments considered interesting in both the experimental and numerical fields. / [ES] En el presente trabajo se realiza la caracterización del proceso de combustión dentro de un sistema de encendido por pre-cámara bajo carga estratificada. Por lo tanto, se presenta una extensa revisión bibliográfica sobre los sistemas de pre-cámara desarrollados desde la segunda mitad del siglo XX hasta los tiempos modernos. El resumen muestra que los sistemas de última generación tienen el potencial de cumplir con los límites de las emisiones, al tiempo que proporcionan un alto rendimiento y un bajo consumo de combustible. No obstante, todavía se necesitan muchos esfuerzos de la comunidad científica para permitir la difusión a gran escala de la tecnología. De hecho, sobre la base de los desafíos abiertos observados, se desarrolla el plan de investigación incluyendo tanto una parte experimental como numérica. Todos los experimentos se realizan mediante la máquina de compresión-expansión rápida (RCEM) de que dispone el laboratorio CMT-Motores Térmicos . La disposición original de la culata se modificó para permitir el alojamiento de la propia pre-cámara, los inyectores , la bujía, los sensores de presión y un termopar. La metodología de ensayo implica la adquisición de la evolución de la presión tanto en cámara principal como en pre-cámara, el volumen del cilindro, la duración de la inyección auxiliar y el punto de ignición de la bujía. Estos se utilizan como parámetros de entrada para el modelo termodinámico cero-dimensional que devuelve los parámetros fundamentales que caracterizan ciclo de trabajo del sistema PCSI. Por lo tanto, se genera un conocimiento más profundo del proceso de intercambio de masas, del campo de turbulencias inducidas, de la tasa de liberación de calor, de la velocidad de combustión y del régimen de la llama. Posteriormente, para calibrar los coeficientes del modelo cero-dimensional bajo condiciones de arrastre, se llevaron a cabo varias simulaciones CFD en 3D mediante el software Converge. Por lo tanto, los resultados de las simulaciones en términos de masa intercambiada y energía cinética turbulenta de la precámara se han utilizado para calibrar el coeficiente de descarga de la tobera y los coeficientes del sub-modelo de turbulencia para todas las geometrías de la pre-cámara. Además, se analizan los resultados de las simulaciones CFD para comprender plenamente la estructura del campo de flujo y el efecto local inducido por las diferentes geometriás en el tiempo de activación de la chispa. La energía cinética turbulenta en términos de intensidad y orientación se investiga en varias secciones relevantes de la pre-cámara. Los resultados revelan una clara relación entre la turbulencia desarrollada dentro de la pre-cámara y la estructura de los orificios. Los orificios rectos o los chorros perpendiculares, promueven una turbulencia local más intensa debido a la colisión directa mientras que los orificios inclinados del campo fluido y del dosado. Precedentemente al desarrollo de la campaña experimental se evalúan varios aspectos fundamentales del sistema. La dispersión ciclo a ciclo se explora por medio de la evaluación estadística que muestra una baja desviación de los picos de presión. La presión y el punto de inyección auxiliar se optimizan para evitar los fenómenos de mojado de las paredes, asegurando al mismo tiempo una mezcla adecuada de aire/combustible. Finalmente, el punto de activación de la chispa se elige en función de la velocidad máxima teórica de la llama turbulenta. De este modo, la campaña experimental se lleva a cabo de acuerdo con la matriz de pruebas, con el fin de evaluar el efecto del dosado equivalente de ambas cámaras, y cómo el diámetro, el número y la distribución de los orificios afectan al proceso de combustión. Además, las pruebas de visualización de quimioluminiscencia, realizadas mediante el acceso óptico disponible de la RCEM, se combinan con resultados de CFD y resultados del modelo cerodimen para arrojar luz sobre el ciclo de trabajo. Las conclusiones sugieren que una mezcla ligeramente rica dentro de la pre-cámaracombinadaconelmayornúmerodeorificiosdesfasadoseslamejor configuración para garantizar un elevada eficiencia de la combustión en condiciones de mezcla pobre y ultra-pobre de la cámara principal. No obstante, los orificios axiales deben ser considerados para investigaciones futuras. Por último, el autor propone una serie de desarrollos considerados interesantes tanto en el campo experimental como en el numérico. / [CA] En el present treball es realitza la caracterització del procés de combustió dins d'un sistema d'encesa de pre-cambra soto càrrega estratifi-cada. Per tant, es presenta una extensa revisió bibliogràfica sobre els sistemes de precambra desenvolupats des de la segona meitat del segle XX fins als temps moderns. El resum mostra que els sistemes d'última generació tenen el potencial de complir amb els límits de les emissions, al mateix temps que proporcionen un alt rendiment i un baix consum de combustible. No obstant això, encara es necessiten molts esforços de la comunitat científica per a permetre la difusió a gran escala de la tecnologia. De fet, sobre la base dels desafiaments oberts observats, es desenvolupa el pla d'investigació incloent tant una part experimental com numèrica. Tots els experiments es realitzen mitjançant la màquina de compressió-expansió ràpida (RCEM) de què disposa el laboratori CMT-Motors Tèrmics. La disposició original de la culata es va modificar per a permetre l'allotjament de la pròpia pre-cambra, els injectors , la bugia, els sensors de pressió i un termoparell. La metodologia d'assaig implica l'adquisició de l'evolució de la pressió tant en cambra principal com en pre-cambra, el volum del cilindre, la duració de la injecció auxiliar i el punt d'ignició de l'espurna. Aquests s'utilitzen com a paràmetres d'entrada per al model termodinàic zero-dimensional que retorna els paràmetres fonamen-tals que caracteritzen cicle de treball del sistema PCSI. Per tant, es genera un coneixement més profund del procés d'intercanvi de masses, del camp de turbulències induïdes, de la taxa d'alliberament de calor, de la velocitat de combustió i del règim de la flama. Posteriorment, per a calibrar els coefi-cients del model zerodimensional sota condicions d'arrossegament, es van dur a terme diverses simulacions CFD en 3D mitjançant el programari Converge. Per tant, els resultats de les simulacions en termes de massa intercanviada i energia cinètica turbulenta de la pre-cambra s'han utilitzat per a calibrar el coeficient de descàrrega de la tovera i els coeficients del sub-model de turbulència per a totes les geometries de la pre-cambra. A més, s'analitzen els resultats de les simulacions CFD per a comprendre plenament l'estructura del camp de flux i l'efecte local induït per les diferents geometries en el temps d'activació de l'espurna. L'energia cinètica turbulenta en termes d'intensitat i orientació s'investiga en diverses seccions rellevants de la pre-cambra. Els resultats revelen una clara relació entre la turbulència desenvolupada dins de la pre-cambra i l'estructura dels orificis. Els orificis rectes o els dolls perpendiculars, promouen una turbulència local més intensa a causa de la col·lisió directa mentre que els orificis inclinats garanteixen una major homogeneïtat a causa de la generació d'un macro-remolì. A més, l'augment del nombre d'orificis mostra beneficis en l'homogeneïtat fluid-dinàmica. Llavors, abans de la campanya experimental s'avaluen diversos aspectes fonamentals del sistema. La dispersió cicle a cicle s'explora per mitjà de l'avaluació estadística que mostra una baixa desviació dels pics de pressió. La pressió i el punt d'injecció auxiliar s'optimitzen per a evitar els fenòmens de mullat de les parets, assegurant al mateix temps una mescla adequada d'aire/combustible. Finalment, el punt d'activació de l'espurna es tria en funció de la velocitat màxima teòrica de la flama turbulenta. D'aquesta manera, la campanya experimental es duu a terme d'acord amb la matriu de proves, amb la finalitat d'avaluar l'efecte del dosatge equivalent de totes dues cambres, i com el diàmetre, el numero i la distribució dels orificis afecten el procés de combustió. A més, les proves de visualització de quimioluminescència, realitzades mitjançant l’accés òptic disponible de la RCEM, es combinen amb resultats de CFD i resultats del model zero-dimensional per a llançar llum sobre el cicle de treball. Les conclusions suggereixen que una mescla lleugerament rica dins de la pre-cambra combinada amb el major nombre d’orificis desfasats és la millor configuració per a garantir un elevada eficiència de la combustió en condicions de mescla pobra i ultra-pobre de la cambra principal. No obstant això, els orificis axials han de ser considerats per a investigacions futures. Finalment, l’autor proposa una sèrie de desenvolupaments considerats interessants tant en el camp experimental com en el numèric. / Pagano, V. (2020). Analysis of a stratified pre-chamber spark ignition system under lean mixture conditions [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/152486

[ES] Debido a las regulaciones en materia de emisiones y CO2 la industria automotriz a desarrollado diferentes tecnologías innovadoras. Estas tecnologías incluyen combustibles alternativos y nuevos modos de combustión, entre otros. De aquí surge la necesidad del desarrollo de nuevos métodos para el control de la combustión en estas condiciones mencionadas. Por este motivo, en este trabajo se han desarrollado diferentes modelos e indicadores orientados al diagnóstico y control de la combustión tanto en condiciones normales como anormales. Para los casos de combustión normal, se ha desarrollado un modelo de combustión, cuyo objetivo es estimar la media de la evolución de la fracción de la masa quemada y la presión dentro del cilindro. Se implementó un observador, basado en la señal de knock, con la finalidad de mejorar la estimación en condiciones transitorias y poder aplicar así el modelo a diferentes tipos de combustibles. También se presenta un modelo de variabilidad cíclica, en el cual, a partir del modelo de combustión, se propaga una distribución en dos de los parámetros de dicho modelo. Ambos modelos han sido aplicados para un motor de encendido provocado y un motor de combustión de encendido por chorro turbulento. En los casos de combustión anormal, se ha incluido un análisis de la resonancia dentro de la cámara de combustión, en donde también se desarrollaron dos modelos capaces de estimar la evolución de la resonancia. Estos modelos, tanto para condiciones normales como anormales, se utilizaron para el diagnóstico de la combustión. Por una parte, para la detección de knock, en donde tres estrategias de detección de knock fueron desarrolladas: dos basadas en el sensor de presión en cámara y una en el sensor de knock. Por otra parte, se realizó una aplicación de un modelo de resonancia para la mejora de la estimación de la masa atrapada a partir de la resonancia. Finalmente, para mostrar el potencial de los modelos de diagnóstico, dos aplicaciones a control se desarrollaron: una para el control de knock a través de la actuación de la chispa, y otra para el control de gases residuales, a través de la actuación de la distribución variable, realizando paralelamente una optimización de la combustión a través de la actuación de la chispa. / [CA] Impulsada per les regulacions en matèria d'emissions i CO2 la indústria automotriu a desenvolupat diferents tecnologies inovadore. Aquestes tecnologies inclouen combustibles alternatius i nous modes de combustió, entre altres. D'ací sorgix la necessitat posar en pràctica nous mètodes per al control de la combustió. En aquest context, el present trevall proposa diferents models i indicadors orientats al diagnòstic i control de la combustió tant en condicions normals com anormals. Per als casos de combustió normal, es proposa un model de combustió, l'objectiu del qual és estimar la mitjana de l'evolució de la fracció de la massa cremada i la pressió dins del cilindre. Es va implementar un observador, basat en la senyal de knock, amb la finalitat de millorar l'estimació en condicions transitòries i poder aplicar així el model a diferents tipus de combustibles. També es presenta un model de variabilitat cíclica, en el qual, a partir del model de combustió, es propaga una distribució en dos dels parametres del dit model. Ambdós models han sigut aplicats a un motor d'encesa provocada i un motor de combustió d'encesa per doll turbulent. Als casos de combustió anormal, s'ha inclos un anàlisi de la ressonància dins de la cambra de combustió, on també es van desenvolupar dos models capaços d'estimar l'evolució de la ressonància. Aquests models, tant per a condicions normals com anormals, s'utilitzen per al diagnòstic de la combustió. Per una part, per a la detecció de knock, on tres estratègies de detecció de knock s'han desenvolupat: dues basades en el sensor de pressió a la cambra de combustió i una altra basada en el sensor de knock. Per altra part, es va realitzar una aplicació d'un model de ressonància per a la millora de l'estimació de la massa atrapada a partir de la ressonància. Finalment, per a mostrar el potencial dels models de diagnòstic, dos aplicacions de control es van desenvolupar: una per al control de knock a través de l'actuació de l'espurna, i una altra per al control de gasos residuals, a través de l'actuació de la distribució variable, realitzant paral·lelament una optimització de la combustió a través de l'actuació de l'espurna. / [EN] The need to satisfy emissions and CO2 regulations is pushing the automotive industry to develop different innovative technologies. These technologies include alternative fuels and new modes of combustion, among others. Therefore, the need for the development of new methods for combustion control in these mentioned conditions arises. For this reason, in this work different models and indicators have been developed aimed at the diagnosis and control of combustion in both normal and abnormal conditions. For normal combustion cases, a combustion model has been developed, the objective of this model is to estimate the mean of evolution of the mass fraction burned and the in-cylinder pressure. An observer had been implemented, based on knock sensor signal, in order to improve the estimation in transient conditions and also to be able to make use of the model with different fuels. A cyclic variability model is also presented, where from the combustion model, a probability distribution is propagated over two of the parameters of such model. Both models had been applied for a spark ignition engine and a turbulent jet ignition combustion engine. For the abnormal combustion cases, an analysis of the resonance within the combustion chamber had been included, where two models capable of estimating the evolution of the resonance were also developed. These models, for both normal and abnormal conditions, were used for the diagnosis of combustion: on the one hand, for knock recognition, where three knock detection strategies were developed: two based on the in-cylinder pressure sensor and one on the knock sensor. On the other hand, an application of a resonance model was carried out in order to improve the estimation of the trapped mass from the resonance excitation. Finally, to show the potential of such models and applications, two control strategies were developed: one for the control of knock through the actuation of the spark advance, and a second for the control of residual gases, through the actuation of the variable valve timing, while optimizing the combustion through the actuation of the spark advance. / El trabajo desarrollado en esta tesis ha sido posible gracias a la financiación de la Generalitat Valenciana y el fondo social europeo a través de la beca 132 GRISO- LIAP/2018/132 y BEFPI/2021/042. / Jiménez, IA. (2022). Development of Combustion Indicators for Control of Multi-Fuel Engines Based on New Combustion Concepts [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/181561

[ES] El transporte por carretera es uno de los sectores que más contribuyen al cambio climático. Por ello, muchos gobernantes a nivel mundial están promoviendo una transición hacia medios de transporte sostenibles que no dependan de combustibles fósiles. Sin embargo, debido a la falta de competitividad de las alternativas actuales, no parece factible, en el corto plazo, reducir significativamente el uso de los motores de combustión. Así pues, es probable que los motores de gasolina (MEP) mantengan su papel dominante en el sector automotriz durante los próximos años. De ahí que sea crucial seguir mejorando estos motores a fin de reducir su huella de carbono. Actualmente, es habitual fabricar motores MEP de pequeña cilindrada ("downsizing") con sistemas de sobrealimentación e inyección directa, a fin de reducir el consumo de combustible y las emisiones de CO2. Además, en la última década, se ha demostrado que la recirculación de gases de escape (EGR) puede mejorar la eficiencia de los motores MEP entre un 3 % y un 6 %, dependiendo del grado de carga. Como desventaja, para poder extraer todo el potencial de la estrategia EGR, es necesario trabajar con altas tasas de EGR, lo que puede causar ciertos problemas en condiciones transitorias. En esta tesis, se ha demostrado que el uso de altas tasas de EGR a través de sistemas de baja presión en motores MEP turboalimentados puede ralentizar la respuesta del motor y provocar fallos de encendido durante maniobras de aceleración y desaceleración, respectivamente. Con la entrada en vigor de nuevos procedimientos de homologación de vehículos, como el WLTP (Worldwide harmonized Light vehicle Test Procedure), donde las operaciones transitorias tienen un peso importante, los fabricantes buscan que sus motores consuman y emitan menos en un amplio rango de condiciones de operación, tanto estacionarias como transitorias. Por ello, el objetivo principal de esta tesis es analizar y optimizar el funcionamiento, en condiciones transitorias, de los motores MEP que operan con altas tasas de EGR. Para ello, se ha empleado un motor de gasolina (Euro 6) de 1.3l turboalimentado con inyección directa, distribución variable y turbina de geometría variable. Se ha desarrollado un modelo unidimensional (1D) del motor para el estudio de la fluidodinámica y los fenómenos de transporte en su interior. Por otro lado, se ha ensayado el motor para calibrar el modelo 1D y evaluar aspectos difícilmente predecibles con dicho modelo, como las emisiones contaminantes y la estabilidad de la combustión. Previo al estudio en condiciones transitorias, el motor fue calibrado con EGR, y se realizaron simulaciones para determinar el consumo de un vehículo convencional y otro híbrido, ambos con EGR, durante un ciclo WLTP. Finalmente, se concluyó que ciertas estrategias orientadas a mejorar el proceso de renovación de la carga pueden resolver la problemática del uso del EGR en condiciones transitorias. Eso sí, implementar dichas estrategias conllevaría un aumento en complejidad y costes. / [CA] El transport per carretera és un dels sectors que més contribueixen al canvi climàtic. Per això, molts governants a nivell mundial estan promovent una transició cap a mitjans de transport sostenibles que no depenguen de combustibles fòssils. No obstant això, a causa de la falta de competitivitat de les alternatives actuals, no sembla factible, en el curt termini, reduir significativament l'ús dels motors de combustió. Així doncs, és probable que els motors de gasolina (MEP) mantinguen el seu paper dominant en el sector automotriu durant els pròxims anys. D'ací ve que siga crucial continuar millorant aquests motors a fi de reduir la seua petjada de carboni. Actualment, és habitual fabricar motors MEP de xicoteta cilindrada ("downsizing") amb sistemes de sobrealimentació i injecció directa, a fi de reduir el consum de combustible i les emissions de CO2. A més, en l'última dècada, s'ha demostrat que la recirculació de gasos d'escapament (EGR) pot millorar l'eficiència dels motors MEP entre un 3% i un 6%, depenent del grau de càrrega. Com a desavantatge, per a poder extraure tot el potencial de l'estratègia EGR, és necessari treballar amb altes taxes de EGR, la qual cosa pot causar uns certs problemes en condicions transitòries. En aquesta tesi, s'ha demostrat que l'ús d'altes taxes de EGR a través de sistemes de baixa pressió en motors MEP turboalimentats pot alentir la resposta del motor i provocar fallades d'encesa durant maniobres d'acceleració i desacceleració, respectivament. Amb l'entrada en vigor de nous procediments d'homologació de vehicles, com el WLTP (Worldwide harmonized Light vehicle Test Procedure), on les operacions transitòries tenen un pes important, els fabricants busquen que els seus motors consumisquen i emeten menys en un ampli rang de condicions d'operació, tant estacionàries com transitòries. Per això, l'objectiu principal d'aquesta tesi és analitzar i optimitzar el funcionament, en condicions transitòries, dels motors MEP que operen amb altes taxes de EGR. Per a això, s'ha emprat un motor de gasolina (Euro 6) de 1.3l turboalimentat amb injecció directa, distribució variable i turbina de geometria variable. S'ha desenvolupat un model unidimensional (1D) del motor per a l'estudi de la fluidodinàmica i els fenòmens de transport en el seu interior. D'altra banda, s'ha assajat el motor per a calibrar el model 1D i avaluar aspectes difícilment predictibles amb aquest model, com les emissions contaminants i l'estabilitat de la combustió. Previ a l'estudi en condicions transitòries, el motor va ser calibrat amb EGR, i es van realitzar simulacions per a determinar el consum d'un vehicle convencional i un altre híbrid, tots dos amb EGR, durant un cicle WLTP. Finalment, es va concloure que unes certes estratègies orientades a millorar el procés de renovació de la càrrega poden resoldre la problemàtica de l'ús del EGR en condicions transitòries. Això sí, implementar aquestes estratègies comportaria un augment en complexitat i costos. / [EN] Road transport is a major contributor to climate change. However, given the lack of competitiveness of fossil fuel-free alternatives, it does not seem possible to reduce the dependence on the internal combustion engine (ICE) as rapidly as planned by the authorities. Advanced gasoline engines will therefore hold a high market share in the automobile industry in the following years, at least during the next decade, either working in conventional or hybrid powertrains. Hence it is essential to keep improving these engines to reduce the negative impact of light-duty vehicles on the environment. The most used strategy to reduce fuel consumption and CO2 emissions in current spark-ignition (SI) gasoline engines is downsizing combined with direct injection (DI). Besides, downsizing must go hand in hand with turbocharging to maintain peak power. It is also proven that exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) can improve fuel economy in SI engines by 3-6% at medium and high loads. As a disadvantage, extracting the full benefit from EGR requires operating with high recirculation rates (close to the EGR dilution limit), leading to some issues under transient conditions. In this thesis, it is demonstrated that high EGR operation through long-route systems in turbocharged engines can potentially originate combustion instabilities and poor engine response during load-decrease (tip-out) and load-increase (tip-in) maneuvers, respectively. Transient operations are especially important for manufacturers since the implementation of the Worldwide harmonized Light vehicle Test Procedure (WLTP). The present thesis is therefore devoted to analyzing and optimizing the gasoline engine performance under high EGR conditions during relevant transient maneuvers. To this end, a Euro-6 1.3L turbocharged DI SI gasoline engine with a variable geometry turbine was employed. A 1D model of this ICE was developed to assess fluid dynamics and transport phenomena. Engine tests were also performed to validate the 1D model and evaluate torque response, combustion stability, and raw exhaust emissions. Before addressing the study of transient maneuvers, the engine calibration with EGR was carried out, and 0D conventional and hybrid vehicle simulations were done to determine the EGR benefit in fuel economy under WLTP driving conditions. Finally, tip-in and tip-out results revealed that some air management strategies are effective in meeting the transient EGR challenges in SI engines, but at the expense of increased complexity and costs. / González Domínguez, D. (2023). Analysis and Optimization of the Transient Operation of Gasoline Turbocharged Direct Injection Engines Under High EGR Conditions [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/193852

Controlled Auto Ignition (CAI) combustion is a new combustion principle in internal combustion engines which has in recent years attracted increased attention. In CAI combustion, which combines features of spark ignition (SI) and compression ignition (CI) principles, air/fuel mixture is premixed, as in SI combustion and auto-ignited by piston compression as in CI combustion. Ignition is provided in multiple points, and thus the charge gives a simultaneous energy release. This results in uniform and simultaneous auto-ignition and chemical reaction throughout the whole charge without flame propagation. CAI combustion is controlled by the chemical kinetics of air/fuel mixture with no influence of turbulence. The CAI engine offers benefits in comparison to spark ignited and compression ignited engines in higher efficiency due to elimination of throttling losses at part and idle loads. There is a possibility to use high compression ratios since it is not knock limited, and in significant lower NOx emission (≈90%) and particle matter emission (≈50%), due to much lower combustion temperature and elimination of fuel rich zones. However, there are several disadvantages of the CAI engine that limits its practical application, such as high level of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions, high peak pressures, high rates of heat release, reduced power per displacement and difficulties in starting and controlling the engine. Controlling the operation over a wide range of loads and speeds is probably the major difficulty facing CAI engines. Controlling is actually two-components as it consists of auto-ignition phasing and controlling the rates of heat release. As CAI combustion is controlled by chemical kinetics of air/fuel mixture, the auto-ignition timing and heat release rate are determined by the charge properties such as temperature, composition and pressure. Therefore, changes in engine operational parameters or in types of fuel, results in changing of the charge properties. Hence, the auto-ignition timing and the rate of heat release. The Thesis investigates a controlled auto-ignition (CAI) combustion in internal combustion engines suitable for transport applications. The CAI engine environment is simulated by using a single-zone, homogeneous reactor model with a time variable volume according to the slider-crank relationship. The model uses detailed chemical kinetics and distributed heat transfer losses according to Woschini's correlation [1]. The fundamentals of chemical kinetics, and their relationship with combustion related problems are presented. The phenomenology and principles of auto-ignition process itself and its characteristics in CAI combustion are explained. The simulation model for representing CAI engine environment is established and calibrated with respect to the experimental data. The influences of fuel composition on the auto-ignition timing and the rate of heat release in a CAI engine are investigated. The effects of engine parameters on CAI combustion in different engine concepts fuelled with various fuels are analysed. The effects of internal gas recirculation (IEGR) in controlling the auto-ignition timing and the heat release rate in a CAI engine fuelled with different fuels are investigated. The effects of variable valve timings strategy on gas exchange process in CAI engine fuelled with commercial gasoline (95RON) are analysed.

Currently environmental concerns are driving internal combustion engine manufacturers to seek greater fuel efficiency, more refinement and lower emissions. Cyclic variation is a known obstacle to achieving the greatest potential against these goals and therefore an understanding of how to reduce these is sought. It is widely accepted that cyclic variation in in-cylinder flow motions is a key contributor to overall cyclic variation and therefore the characterisation of factors affecting these is an important step in the process of achieving a better understanding and ultimately control of cyclic variation. This thesis reports the development of a novel optical engine research facility in which high speed digital particle image velocimetry (HSDPIV) has been applied to the study of flow field behaviour within a direct injection spark ignition (DISI) engine. This study investigates the spatial and temporal development of flow structures over and within many engine cycles. Flow field PIV measurements have been captured with a high spatial resolution and temporal frequencies up to 5 kHz from a number of measurement locations at a large range of crank angles. The major contributions from this work have included the use of the novel measurement technique to investigate spatial and temporal flow field development in the intake runner, valve jet, in-cylinder tumble and swirl planes and the pent roof. The gathered data have been used to investigate cycle by cycle variations in both high and low frequency flow structures. Major findings of this work have included the observation of highly varying flow fields throughout the engine cycle. Frequency analysis of these flows has allowed the low frequency bulk motions and higher frequency turbulent components to be studied. The low frequency flow field components are shown to create varying flow field interactions within the cylinder that also affect the manner in which the flow develops over the course of the cycle. The intensity of the turbulence fluctuations, u , has been calculated based upon the high frequency components within the flow and variations within this are shown to correlate with pressure related combustion parameters.