Social anxiety disorder (SAD) is characterized by an intense fear of negative evaluation from others in social and/or performance situations. Research has demonstrated that socially anxious individuals' post-event processing, or post-mortem review of social situations, often affects their levels of anxiety, negative emotions, interpretations, and memories of events (Brozovich & Heimberg, 2008). Furthermore, research has shown that processing negative descriptions using imagery is more emotion-evoking than semantic processing of the same material (Holmes & Mathews, 2005; Holmes & Mathews, 2010). The present study investigated post-event processing involving mental imagery and its effects on mood, anxiety, and potentially biased interpretations of social and nonsocial events. Socially anxious and non-anxious participants were told they would give a 5 min impromptu speech at the end of the experimental session. They were then randomly assigned to one of three manipulation conditions: post-event processing imagery (PEP-Imagery), post-event processing semantic (PEP-Semantic), or a Control condition. In the post-event processing conditions, participants recalled a past anxiety-provoking speech and thought about the anticipated speech either using imagery (PEP-Imagery) or focusing on their meaning (PEP-Semantic). Following the condition manipulation, participants completed a variety of affect, anxiety, and interpretation measures. Consistent with our predictions, socially anxious individuals in the PEP-Imagery condition displayed greater anxiety than individuals in the other conditions immediately following the induction and before the anticipated speech task. Socially anxious individuals in the PEP-Imagery condition also interpreted ambiguous scenarios in a more socially anxious manner than individuals in the Control condition. The impact of imagery during post-event processing in social anxiety and its implications for cognitive-behavioral interventions are discussed. / Psychology

Participants were 20 (14 females and 6 males) first-time marathon runners registered for the Bank of America Chicago Marathon in Chicago, IL on October 7th, 2013. Participants were recruited for the purpose of exploring the effects of a 4-week individualized imagery training program on mental toughness and flow and asked to complete a demographics survey, the Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ), the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ), Short Flow States Scale-2 (Short FSS-2), Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ), and a Pre-Imagery Training Interview and then be divided into an experimental and control group (prior to running the marathon). Participants in the experimental group received a modified copy of a Chicago marathon training video and a tailored 10-15 minute imagery training session while participants in the control group received only the Chicago marathon training video. Next, participants ran in the Bank of America Chicago Marathon and, after the race, met with the researcher to complete the SIQ, Short FSS-2, SMTQ, and a post-imagery interview. Several themes emerged concerning the runners' understanding of the marathon course, race concerns, race goals, and race strategies at pretest as well as both positive and negative experiences during the marathon and their methods for coping and using the imagery during the marathon (reported at posttest). The experimental group had a moderate positive correlation between the imagery subscales of cognitive general (CG) and motivational-general mastery (MG-M) and mental toughness (MT) (r(6) = .761 and r(6)= .685, p < .05 respectively). There was a moderate positive correlation between the imagery subscales of CG and MG-M and flow (r(6) = .719 and r(6) = .783, p < .05 respectively). This would indicate that individuals high in using imagery as a means to goal set as well as master the course tended to have high flow scores. Cognitive specific (CS), motivational specific (MS), and motivational-general arousal (MG-A) had a small, non-significant correlation with MT (r(6) = .492, r(6) = .321, r(6) = .341, p < .05) and a moderate relationship with flow (r(6) = .522, r(6) = .593, r(6) = .529, p < .05). There is a high positive relationship between flow and MT (r(6) = .906, p < .05), indicating that individuals who experienced high levels of flow also experienced high levels of MT. Control group participants had a moderate inverse relationship between CG and MT (r(4) = -.659, p < .05) and moderate positive relationships between CG, MS, and MG-A and flow (r(4) = .662, r(4) = .710, and r(4) = .552, p < .05 respectively) within control participants. For the control participants, flow and MT were not found to have a significant relationship (r(4) = .310, p < .05); these results are consistent with the control participants' imagery, flow, and MT scores suggesting that flow did not have any effect on MT. Overall, the tailored imagery script training was found to be helpful for both flow and mental toughness. Recommendations for future research should focus on developing a 6-week psychological skills training program for first time marathon runners and developing research that focuses on periodizing imagery to coincide with runners' marathon training programs. / Kinesiology

The purpose of this two-phase study was to investigate the effects of rate of presentation and type of material on the use of visual imagery in learning disabled (LD) and average achieving (AA) students. In the first phase, a norming study, 15 LD and 15 AA students were instructed to generate images for a list of concrete paired associates. The amount of time required to generate an image and the particular inlage reported was recorded. Based upon processing time and an image similarity index, 18 easy-to-relate and 18 difficult-to-relate word pairs were identified. Two rates of presentation (5 seconds and 10 seconds) were also determined in the norming study. In the second phase, an experimental study, 40 LD and 40 AA students were presented with the word pairs derived from the norming study, at a 5 second and a 10 second rate. The experimental task involved learning the word paIrs under either imagery or rehearsal instructions. Students were tested for associative recall after each learning trial by being presented one member of each pair and being required to recall its pairmate. Subjects were subsequently asked to report on the strategies they implemented to learn the word pairs. Data were analyzed using a 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 (group x instruction x presentation rate x pair difficulty) ANOVA with repeated measures on the last two factors. A series of separate imagery/rehearsal planned comparisons were conducted within each group/ presentation rate/pair difficulty combination. In addition, descriptive statistics were computed on the number and types of strategies reported by the students. Both LD and AA students benefited from the imagery strategy with both types of pairs at both rates. / Ph. D.

Brain-computer interfaces are an emerging technology that could provide channels for communication and control to severely disabled people suffering from locked-in syndrome. It has been found that motor imagery can be detected and classified from EEG signals. The motivation of the present work was to compare several algorithms for motor imagery classification in EEG signals as well as to test several novel algorithms. The algorithms tested included the popular method of common spatial patterns (CSP) spatial filtering followed by linear discriminant analysis (LDA) classification of log-variance features (CSP+LDA). A second set of algorithms used classification based on concepts from Riemannian geometry. The basic idea of these methods is that sample spatial covariance matrices (SCMs) of EEG epochs belong to the Riemannian manifold of symmetric positive-definite (SPD) matrices and that the tangent space at any SPD matrix on the manifold is a finite-dimensional Euclidean space. Riemannian classification methods tested included minimum distance to Riemannian mean (MDRM), tangent space LDA (TSLDA), and Fisher geodesic filtering followed by MDRM classification (FGDA). The novel algorithms aimed to combine the CSP method with the Riemannian geometry methods. CSP spatial filtering was performed prior to sample SCM calculation and subsequent classification using Riemannian methods. The novel algorithms were found to improve classification accuracy as well as reduce the computational costs of Riemannian classification methods for binary, synchronous classification on BCI competition IV dataset 2a. / Master of Science

Equivocal results for imagery as a beneficial adjunct to performance may be due to diverse methodologies as well as a lack of clarity about the relationship between imagery ability and imagery perspective. This study used a randomized group design with repeated measures to evaluate the effect of imagery content and perspective on strength. Subjects were 44 women, ages 19 to 34, classified as beginning weight lifters. All were pre-tested on imagery ability and knee joint strength. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three training conditions: (1) an internal imagery perspective; (2) an external imagery perspective, and (3) no imagery training. Training was conducted twice per week for eight weeks. Subjects were also asked to work out a third time. The dependent measure to assess strength at the beginning, middle, and end of the eight-weeks was the Cybex II dynamometer. The dependent measure to assess imagery vividness was the Betts questionnaire Upon Mental Imagery. Imagery perspective was measured by the Imagination Exercise. Results of a two-way analysis of variance with repeated measures using Cybex II found significant strength differences for: (1) all groups and (2) the internal imagery group. A significant linear trend was also found between groups. Additionally, a two-way analysis of variance with repeated measures, using imagery ratings found significant improvement in kinesthetic vividness for all groups. This investigation is the first experimental study using beginning athletes to demonstrate significant performance effects using mental training above and beyond significant effects due to physical training. / Master of Science

This thesis explores the use of religious language, metaphors, and images in the popular presentation of cosmology. Specifically looking at books written by cosmologists and intended for a lay audience, I argue that these religious appeals present a particular model, or picture, of cosmology to the public. Through the religious language, metaphors, and images, the texts create scientific-religious imagery which gives cosmology and cosmologists religious functions (e.g., the metaphor of cosmologists as priests). Taking these images together, the texts present a model in which cosmology performs like a religion -a model of Cosmology-as-Religion. Thus, the religious appeals appropriate religious authority through cosmology's assumption of religious functions. However, the texts also contain arguments justifying cosmology and the need for its continued financial support. The texts link these justificatory arguments to the scientific-religious imagery, and this associates the texts' appropriation of religious authority with the justificatory arguments. As a result, the appropriated functions give cosmology additional social benefits, providing a socio-religious context to the arguments. This, in turn, increases cosmology's importance to society. In this way, the religious appeals help legitimate the justification of cosmology. / Master of Science

Primary productivity is a fundamental ecological process and an important measure of ecosystem response to environmental change. Currently, there is a considerable lapse in our understanding of primary productivity in hot and cold deserts, due to the difficulty of measuring production in cryptogam vegetation. However, remote sensing can provide long-term, spatially-extensive estimates of primary production and are particularly well suited to remote environments, such as in the McMurdo Dry Valleys (MDV) of Antarctica, where cyanobacterial communities are the main drivers of primary production. These microbial communities form multi-layered sheets (i.e., microbial mats) on top of desert pavement. The cryptic nature of these communities, their often patchy spatial distribution, and their ability to survive desiccation make assessments of productivity challenging. I used field-based surveys of microbial mat biomass and pigment chemistry in conjunction with analyses of multispectral satellite data to examine the distribution and activity of microbial mats. This is the first satellite-derived estimate of microbial mat biomass for Antarctic microbial mat communities. I show strong correlations between multispectral satellite data (i.e., NDVI) and ground based measurements of microbial mats, including ground cover, biomass, and pigment chemistry. Elemental (C, N) and isotopic composition (15N, 13C) of microbial mats show that they have significant effects on biogeochemical cycling in the soil and sediment of this region where they occur. Using these relationships, I developed a statistical model that estimates biomass (kg of C) in selected wetlands in the Lake Fryxell Basin, Antarctica. Overall, this research demonstrates the importance of terrestrial microbial mats on C and N cycling in the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica. / Master of Science / Primary productivity is an essential ecological process and a useful measure of how ecosystems respond to climate change. Primary production is more difficult to measure in polar desert ecosystems where there is little to no vascular vegetation. Polar regions are also ecosystems where we expect to see significant responses to a changing climate. Remote sensing and image analysis can provide estimates of primary production and are particularly useful in remote environments. For example, in the McMurdo Dry Valleys (MDV) of Antarctica, cyanobacterial communities are the main primary producers. These microbial communities form multi-layered sheets (i.e., microbial mats) on top of rocks and soil. These communities are cryptic, do not cover large areas of ground continuously, and are able to survive desiccation and freezing. All of these characteristics make assessments of productivity especially challenging. For my master’s research, I collected microbial mat samples in conjunction with the acquisition of a satellite image of my study area in the MDV, and I determined biological parameters (e.g., percent ground cover, organic matter, and chlorophyll-a content) through laboratory analyses using these samples. I used this satellite image to extract spectral data and perform a vegetation analysis using the normalized difference vegetation index (i.e., NDVI), which determines areas in the image that contain vegetation (i.e., microbial mats). By linking the spectral data to the biological parameters, I developed a statistical model that estimates biomass (i.e., carbon content) of my study areas. These are the first microbial mat biomass estimates using satellite imagery for this region of Antarctica. Additionally, I researched the importance of microbial mats on nitrogen cycling in Taylor Valley. Using elemental and isotopic analyses, I determined microbial mats have significant effects on the underlying soil and nutrient cycling. Overall, this research demonstrates the importance of terrestrial microbial mats on C and N fixation in Antarctic soil environments.

Unwanted and distressing visual imagery is a persistent and emotionally taxing symptom characteristic of several mental illnesses, including depression, schizophrenia, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Intrusive imagery symptoms have been linked to maladaptive memory formation, abnormal visual cortical activity during viewing, gaze pattern deficits, and trait characteristics of mental imagery. Emotional valence of visual stimuli has been shown to alter perceptual processes that influence the direction of attention to visual information, which may result in enhanced attention to suboptimal and generalizable visual properties. This study tested the hypothesis that aberrant gaze patterns to central and peripheral image regions influence the formation of decontextualized visual details which may facilitate involuntary and emotionally negative mental imagery experiences following a stressful or traumatic event. Gaze patterns and hemodynamic response from occipital cortical locations were recorded while healthy participants (N = 39) viewed and imagined scenes with negative or neutral emotional valence. Self-report behavioral assessments of baseline vividness of visual imagery and various cognitive factors were combined with these physiological measures to investigate the potential relationship between visual perception and mental recreation of negative scenes. Results revealed significant effects of task and valence conditions on specific fixation measures and hemodynamic response patterns in ventral visual areas, which interacted with cognitive factors such as imagery vividness and familiarity. Findings further suggest that behaviors observed during mental imagery reveal processes related to representational formation over and above perceptual performance and may be applied to the study of disorders such as PTSD. / Ph. D.

Accessible flood modeling for low-resource, data-scarce communities currently does not exist. This paper proposes using drone imagery to compensate for the lack of other flood modeling data (i.e. streamflow measurements). Three flood models were run for Dzaleka Refugee Camp, located in Dowa, Malawi. Two of the models (the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) and the Hydrologic Engineering Center River Analysis System (HEC-RAS)) are commonly used hydrological-hydraulic based models. The third model, the Water Caused Erosion Patterns (WCEP) model, was proposed by the author to capitalize on the high-resolution drone imagery using geological-geomorphological information. The drone imagery used in this study has a resolution of 3.5cm and shows erosion patterns throughout the refugee camp. By comparing the erosion patterns to flow direction of the surface, the erosion patterns were determined to be water caused or not water caused, the erosion patterns considered water caused were defined as high-risk flood areas, creating the WCEP model. The three models were compared using locations of collapsed houses throughout the camp. It was found that the WCEP model represents the location of collapsed houses significantly better (misclassification rate below 17%) than the SWAT or HEC-RAS models (misclassification rate below 54%, and 67% respectively). The WCEP model was combined with the best hydrological-hydraulic model (SWAT) to create a hydrogeomorphological model which capitalizes on both the drone imagery and the hydrological process. / Master of Science / The negative impact flooding has on communities can be reduced through flood modeling. But commonly used flood models are not accessible to data-scarce communities because of the historical data the models require. This paper explores using aerial imagery taken by a drone to make-up for the lack of historical data at Dzaleka Refugee Camp located in Dowa, Malawi. Drone imagery has a very high spatial resolution (3.5cm), so it is able to provide a lot of details, including marks that show an increase of flooding in certain areas and elevation information. The flood model presented in this paper is created using the found flood marks in drone imagery. The presented model is then compared to two commonly used flood models, and all three flood models are compared to locations of houses that collapsed from flooding throughout the refugee camp. The model created using drone imagery did the best job predicting high-risk locations with misclassification rates below 17%. The drone imagery model was then combined with a commonly used model to create a more comprehensive flood model, capitalizing on all available data.

The use of imagery in preparing for a task is well documented. Sports training, in particular, is one area in which imagery has been used very successfully. In this case the sport is golf, and the task at hand is putting. On average, putting accounts for the highest percentage of shots with any single club in a round of golf. This implies that golfers should focus on putting training to better their scores. This thesis is about designing an object, a putting trainer, which can aid the process of imagery by providing more information to the user. / Master of Science