L'objectif de cette thèse était d'évaluer quelques Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs), choisis en fonction de leur taille de pores, de leur volume poreux et de leur stabilité thermique, en adsorption et séparation des hydrocarbures. Pour étudier le comportement général des MOFs nous avons choisi des MOFs avec des centres métalliques insaturés, des MOFs à charpente anionique et des ZIFs neutres et avons étudié leur sélectivité en séparation de trois familles d'hydrocarbures, à savoir alcanes, alcènes, aromatiques. Les MOFs à centre métallique insaturé se comportent généralement comme des zéolithes polaires, les ZIFs comme des zéolithes apolaires et/ou comme des tamis moléculaires. Les adsorbants les plus prometteurs sont testés sur des séparations d'intérêt industriel telles que la séparation des isomères de xylène, la séparation des paraffines linéaires, monobranchées et di-branchées et l'adsorption sélective du thiophène en vu de l'évaluation de ces adsorbants en désulfuration des essences.

L'objectif de cette thèse était d’évaluer quelques Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs), choisis en fonction de leur taille de pores, de leur volume poreux et de leur stabilité thermique, en adsorption et séparation des hydrocarbures. Pour étudier le comportement général des MOFs nous avons choisi des MOFs avec des centres métalliques insaturés, des MOFs à charpente anionique et des ZIFs neutres et avons étudié leur sélectivité en séparation de trois familles d'hydrocarbures, à savoir alcanes, alcènes, aromatiques. Les MOFs à centre métallique insaturé se comportent généralement comme des zéolithes polaires, les ZIFs comme des zéolithes apolaires et/ou comme des tamis moléculaires. Les adsorbants les plus prometteurs sont testés sur des séparations d’intérêt industriel telles que la séparation des isomères de xylène, la séparation des paraffines linéaires, monobranchées et di-branchées et l’adsorption sélective du thiophène en vu de l’évaluation de ces adsorbants en désulfuration des essences. / The aim of this thesis was to evaluate several Metal Organic Frameworks (MOFs), selected based on criteria of pore size, pore volume and thermal stability, in adsorption and separation of hydrocarbons. For studying the general behavior of MOFs in hydrocarbon adsorption, we have chosen MOFs with open metal sites, MOFs with anionic frameworks and neutral ZIFs. The MOFs with open metal sites behave similar to polar zeolites, the ZIFs behave like apolar zeolites and/or like molecular sieves. Finally we selected the most interesting MOFs and tested them in several separations with industrial interest: xylene isomers, paraffin isomers and selective adsorption of thiophene for the purpose of fuel desulfuration.

This master’s thesis was conducted at the Department of Nanotechnology and Functional Materials at Ångström Laboratory as part of an on-going project to develop hybrid nanocomposites from Cladophora cellulose and a sub-type of metal-organic frameworks; zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs). By utilizing a state-of-the-art interfacial synthesis approach, in-situ growth of ZIF particles on the cellulose could be achieved. TEMPO-mediated oxidation was diligently used to achieve cellulose nanofibers with carboxylate groups on their surfaces. These were ion-exchanged to promote growth of ZIF particles in a nanocellulose solution and lastly, metal ions and organic linkers which the ZIFs are composed of were added to the surface functionalized and ion-exchanged nanocellulose solution to promote ZIF growth. By vacuum filtration, mechanical pressing and furnace drying; freestanding nanopapers were obtained. A core-shell morphology between the nanocellulose and ZIF crystals was desired and by adjusting the metal ion concentration, a change in morphologies was expected. The nanocomposites were investigated with several relevant analytical tools to confirm presence, attachment and in-situ growth of ZIF crystal particles upon the surface of the fine nanocellulose fibers. Both the CNF@ZIF-67 and CNF@ZIF-8 nanocomposites were successfully prepared as nanopapers with superior surface areas and thermal properties compared to pure TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanopapers. The CNF@ZIFs showcased hierarchical porosities, stemming from the micro- and mesoporous ZIFs and nanocellulose, respectively. Also, it was demonstrated that CNF@ZIF-8 selectively adsorbed CO2 over N2. Partial formation of core-shell structure could be obtained, although a relationship between increased metal ions and ZIF particle morphology could not wholly be observed.

This project relates to the non-classical growth of inorganic crystals with interesting morphologies that are highly desirable in industry. All crystals were synthesized via hydrothermal or solvothermal methods and their growth was studied by stopping each reaction at a range of different times, extracting the particles and analysing them using a variety of characterisation techniques. The main techniques used were scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy but other techniques, such as powder X-ray diffraction and thermal gravimetric analysis, were also employed. Decorated ZnO microstadiums were studied where ZnO nanocones coat the inner and outer columnar walls of ZnO microstadiums. It was revealed that the polymer in the synthetic solution enhanced the aggregation of nanocrystallites of precursor ions on the microstadium surfaces, which then underwent recrystallization, forming ZnO nanocones. The presence of organic agents was also found to be crucial in the non-classical growth mechanisms of CaCO₃ and RHO-ZIF crystals as the presence of charged groups on the organic molecules led to the aggregation of precursor molecules/ions, preventing classical growth. The disordered aggregates underwent surface recrystallization, forming ‘core-shell' structures where a thin layer of single crystal encased a disordered core. Over time the crystallisation extended from the surface inwards, towards the core, until true single crystals were formed. Organic molecules were also shown to play a role in the non-classical growth of 8-branched Cu₂O structures. In this case, however, studies of the electronic configuration of the main terminating facets of Cu₂O crystals revealed another key factor in their non-classical growth. Terminating hydroxyl groups on the Cu₂O surfaces could have different charges depending on the number of Cu⁺ ions they were coordinated to. The terminating {111} faces were the only ones to be coated with negatively charged hydroxyl groups, which explained the rapid growth on these surfaces as they were able to attract the positively charged metal/polymer precursor clusters. This new phenomenon was also found to be the main driving force in the rapid growth of branches in snowflake-like Fe₂O₃ crystals despite no organic agent being used. In this case, the {11-20} faces of the seed crystals had positively charged hydroxyl groups that were able to rapidly attract the negatively charged [Fe(CN) ₆]³⁻ ions in the aqueous solution.

This thesis uses solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and density functional theory (DFT) calculations to study local structure and disorder in inorganic materials. Initial work concerns microporous aluminophosphate frameworks, where the importance of semi-empirical dispersion correction (SEDC) schemes in structural optimisation using DFT is evaluated. These schemes provide structures in better agreement with experimental diffraction measurements, but very similar NMR parameters are obtained for any structures where the atomic coordinates are optimised, owing to the similarity of the local geometry. The ³¹P anisotropic shielding parameters (Ω and κ) are then measured using amplified PASS experiments, but there appears to be no strong correlation of these with any single geometrical parameter. In subsequent work, a range of zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) are investigated. Assignment of ¹³C and ¹⁵N NMR spectra, and measurement of the anisotropic NMR parameters, enabled the number and type of linkers present to be determined. For ¹⁵N, differences in Ω may provide information on the framework topology. While ⁶⁷Zn measurements are experimentally challenging and periodic DFT calculations are currently unreliable, calculations on small model clusters provide good agreement with experiment and indicate that ⁶⁷Zn NMR spectra are sensitive to the local structure. Finally, a series of pyrochlore-based ceramics (Y₂Hf₂₋ₓSnₓO₇) is investigated. A phase transformation from pyrochlore to a disordered defect fluorite phase is predicted, but ⁸⁹Y and ¹¹⁹Sn NMR reveal that rather than a solid solution, a significant two-phase region is present, with a maximum of ~12% Hf incorporated into the pyrochlore phase. The use of ¹⁷O NMR to provide insight into the local structure and disorder in these materials is also investigated. Once the different T₁ relaxation and nutation behaviour is considered it is shown that quantitative ¹⁷O enrichment of Y₂Sn₂O₇ is possible, and that ¹⁷O does offer a promising future tool for study.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] El desarrollo de membranas poliméricas capaces de actuar como electrolito en pilas de combustible tipo PEMFC a temperaturas intermedias constituye uno de los principales retos para conseguir la generación eficiente de energía por medio de estos dispositivos. Actualmente, las membranas basadas en polímeros perfluorosulfonados como el Nafion® son las más extendidas en pilas de combustible, ya que presentan una buena conductividad protónica además de ser estables mecánica y químicamente. Sin embargo, este tipo de membranas no son capaces de ofrecer buenos rendimientos por encima de 80 ¿C. En este sentido, el objetivo fundamental de esta tesis ha sido la síntesis y caracterización de membranas poliméricas que permitan su potencial utilización en el rango de temperaturas intermedias, por encima de 100 ¿C, donde la cinética de los electrodos y el transporte de protones a través de la membrana mejoran considerablemente, aumentando con ello el rendimiento de la celda. La investigación llevada a cabo se ha centrado en dos tipos de polímeros: poli(eter-eter-cetona) sulfonada (SPEEK) y polibencimidazol (PBI). Las membranas basadas en SPEEK ofrecen una elevada conductividad protónica y una buena estabilidad tanto mecánica como química. Si bien, estas propiedades dependen drásticamente de su grado de sulfonación. Así, altos grados de sulfonación resultan en muy buenas conductividades protónicas, aunque por el contrario, originan un excesivo hinchamiento de las membranas provocando un empeoramiento de sus propiedades mecánicas. Además, cuando la temperatura supera los 80 ¿C su conductividad disminuye debido a la deshidratación de la membrana. La estrategia seguida en este caso para mantener las propiedades mecánicas y la conductividad de las membranas basadas en SPEEK a temperaturas intermedias ha consistido en utilizar un polímero con un índice de intercambio catiónico no excesivamente alto (1.75 meq g-1), el cual ha sido dopado con dos tipos de compuestos organometálicos diferentes de tipo ZIF (Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework ) y con una mezcla de ambos. Este tipo de compuestos constituyen una subclase de los conocidos como Metal Organic Framework (MOF), los cuales adoptan una estructura tipo zeolita donde la parte orgánica está constituida por un anillo de imidazol y el nodo inorgánico es un metal. En este caso Zinc para el Z8 y Cobalto para el Z67. Las membranas compuestas SPEEK-ZIF mejoraron claramente las prestaciones de las de SPEEK puro a temperaturas intermedias. En base a los resultados anteriores, se seleccionaron las membranas dopadas con ZIF-67 para su evaluación en monocelda donde ofrecieron valores superiores a los de las membranas de SPEEK puro sin la adición de cargas y a los obtenidos con membranas de Nafion®117 a temperaturas superiores a 100 °C. En el caso de las membranas en base PBI, estas han sido capaces de ofrecer valores elevados de conductividad a altas temperaturas cuando eran dopadas con ácido fosfórico. Sin embargo, la pérdida del ácido por parte de la membrana (leaching) con el tiempo de operación y la degradación que este ácido provoca en los componentes de la celda, hacen que sea necesaria la utilización de otros agentes dopantes no volátiles y menos agresivos capaces de aportar al polímero la conductividad de la que carece. Los líquidos iónicos son sales fundidas a temperatura ambiente que poseen presiones de vapor despreciables y ofrecen buenas conductividades a temperaturas elevadas. En esta tesis, se prepararon por el método de casting, membranas de PBI conteniendo el líquido iónico 1-butil-3-metil imidazolio bis(trifluorometil sulfonil) imida (BMIM-NTf2) en diferentes porcentajes. Estas membranas alcanzaron a partir de un 10 % wt. de líquido iónico un valor de conductividad del orden de 10-2 S cm-1 a 160 ¿C. Señalando su potencial como electrolito polimérico basado en PBI libre de ácido fosfórico. / [CA] El desenvolupament de membranes polimèriques vàlides per a actuar com a electròlit en piles de combustible tipus PEMFC a temperatures intermèdies. Constitueix un dels reptes principals per aconseguir la generació eficient d'energia amb aquests dispositius. Actualment, les membranes basades en polímers perfluorosulfonats com el Nafion® són les més utilitzades en piles de combustible, ja que presenten una bona conductivitat protònica a més de tindre una bona estabilitat química i mecànica. Tot i això, aquest tipus de membranes no oferixen bons rendiments a temperaturas superiors a 80 ¿C. En aquest sentit, l'objectiu fonamental d'aquesta tesi ha segut la síntesi i caracterització de membranes polimèriques amb les característiques adequades per poder treballar a temperatures intermèdies, per damunt de 100 ¿C. En aquestes condicions la cinètica dels elèctrodes i el transport de protons a través de la membrana milloren considerablement augmentant amb això el rendiment de la cel·la. La investigació duta a terme s'ha centrat en dos tipus de polímers: poli(eter-eter-cetona) sulfonada (SPEEK) i polibencimidazol (PBI). Les membranes basades en SPEEK ofereixen una elevada conductivitat protònica i una bona estabilitat tant mecànica com a química. No obstant això, aquestes caracteristiques depenen dràsticament del seu grau de sulfonació. Així, alts graus de sulfonació resulten en molt bones conductivitats protòniques. Encara que per contra, originen un excessiu unflament de les membranes en aigua calenta provocant un empitjorament de les seves propietats mecàniques. A més, quan la temperatura supera els 80 ¿C la seva conductivitat baixa a causa de la deshidratació de la membrana. L'estratègia seguida en aquest cas per mantenir les propietats mecàniques i la conductivitat de les membranes basades en SPEEK a temperatures intermèdies. Ha segut partir d'un polímer amb un índex d'intercanvi catiònic no gaire alt (1.75 meq g-1). El qual ha segut dopat amb dos tipus de compostos órganometàl.lics diferents de tipus ZIF (Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework) (ZIF) i amb una barreja de tots dos. Aquest tipus de compostos constitueixen una subclasse dels coneguts com a Metal Organic Framework (MOF). Els quals adopten una estructura tipus zeolita on la part orgànica està constituïda per un anell d'imidazol i el node inorgànic és el metall. En aquest cas Zinc per al Z8 i Cobalt per al Z67. Les membranes compostes SPEEK-ZIF van millorar clarament les prestacions de les de SPEEK pur a temperatures intermèdies. En base als resultats anteriors es van seleccionar les membranes dopades amb ZIF-67 per a la seva avaluació en monocel·la on van oferir valors superiors als de les membranes de SPEEK pur sense l'addició de càrregues i als obtinguts amb membranes de Nafion®117 en les mateixes condicions a temperatures superiors a 100 °C. En el cas de les membranes en base PBI, aquestes han oferit valors elevats de conductivitat a altes temperatures, quan han segut dopades amb àcid fosfòric. Tot i això, la pèrdua de l'àcid per part de la membrana (leaching) amb el temps d'operació i la degradació que aquest àcid provoca en els components de la cel·la, fan que siga necessària la utilització d'altres agents dopants no volàtils i menys agressius capaços d'aportar al polímer conductivitat iònica. Els líquids iònics són sals foses a temperatura ambient que tenen pressions de vapor molt febles i ofereixen bones conductivitats a temperatures elevades. En aquesta tesi es van preparar pel mètode de càsting, membranes de PBI contenint el líquid iònic 1-butil-3-metil imidazoli bis(trifluorometil sulfonil) imida (BMIM-NTf2) en diferents percentatges. Aquestes membranes van assolir a partir d'un 10% wt. de líquid iònic un valor de conductivitat de l'ordre de 10-2 S cm-1 a 160 ¿C. Assenyalant el seu potencial com a electròlit polimèric basat en PBI lliure d'àcid fosfòric. / [EN] The development of polymeric membranes capable of acting as an electrolyte in a proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) at intermediate temperatures. It constitutes one of the main challenges to achieve efficient energy generation through these kinds of devices. Currently, membranes based on perfluorosulfonated polymers such as Nafion® are the most widespread in fuel cells, since they have good proton conductivity as well as being mechanically and chemically stable. However, these types of membranes are not capable of offering good performance above 80 ¿C. In this sense, the main objective of this thesis has been the synthesis and characterization of polymeric membranes with potential use in the range of intermediate temperatures, above 100 ¿C, where the kinetics of the electrodes and the transport of protons through of the membrane and the performance of the cell are greatly improved. The research carried out has focused on two types of polymers: sulfonated poly(ether-ether-ketone) (SPEEK) and polybenzimidazole (PBI). SPEEK-based membranes offer high proton conductivity and good mechanical and chemical stability. However, their properties depend dramatically on its degree of sulfonation. Thus, high degrees of sulfonation result in excellent proton conductivities. On the other hand, the large amount of sulphonic groups in the membrane cause an excessive swelling in hot water, leading to a worsening of their mechanical properties, even reaching its dissolution. Furthermore, as also happens with perfluorosulfonated membranes, when the temperature is increased above 80 ¿C their proton conductivity decreases due to membrane dehydration. Focused on maintain the mechanical properties and conductivity of SPEEK-based membranes at intermediate temperatures. Membranes have been prepared from a polymer with a not excessively high cation exchange rate (1.75 meq g-1). Which has been doped with two different ZIF-type (Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework) organometallic compounds and with a mixture of both. This type of compounds constitutes a subclass of those known as Metal Organic Framework (MOF). Which adopt a zeolite-type structure where the organic part is made up of an imidazole ring and the inorganic node is the metal. In this case Zinc for Z8 and Cobalt for Z67. SPEEK-ZIF. Composite membranes clearly improved the performance of pure SPEEK membranes at intermediate tempe-ratures. Based on the previous results, the membranes doped with ZIF-67 were selected for their evaluation in a single fuel cell, where they offered higher values than those of the pure SPEEK membranes without the addition of fillers and those obtained with membranes of Nafion®117 under the same conditions at temperatures above 100 °C. PBI based membranes, have been capable of offering high conductivity values at high temperatures, when they have been doped with phosphoric acid. However, the loss of acid by the membrane (leaching) with the operation time and the degradation that this acid causes in the cell components. In this sense, it is necessary to explore the use of other non-volatile and less aggressive doping agents capable of providing ionic conductivity to the polymer. Ionic liquids are molten salts at room temperature that have negligible vapor pressures and offer good conductivities at elevated temperatures. In this thesis, PBI membranes containing the ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methyl imidazolium bis(trifluoromethyl sulfonyl)imide (BMIM-NTf2) at different percentages were prepared by the casting method. These membranes containing 10 wt.% of ionic liquid reached a conductivity value in the range of 10-2 S cm-1 at 160 ¿C. Noting its potential as a phosphoric acid-free PBI-based polymeric electrolyte. / This work was sponsored by the Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (MINECO) under the project ENE/2015-69203-R. The authors acknowledge the Electron Microscopy Service from Universitat Politècnica de València for the use of instruments and staff assistance. / Barjola Ruiz, A. (2023). Membranas poliméricas de intercambio iónico con aplicación en pilas de combustible de temperatura intermedia [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/193081 / Compendio