In this article, the authors tell us about great risk insurances and describe its regulation in foreign law. Then, they point out the protective role of State in the consumption relationship is to reduce information asymmetries, but there is no total disclosure obligation in the market. Therefore, information asymmetry ceases to be relevant when the user of the service has negotiating capacity and necessary resources to make an informed decision. They conclude it is pertinent to equate the application of the Peruvian Insurance Contract Law to international standards. / En el presente artículo, los autores nos hablan de los seguros de grandes riesgos y describen su tratamiento en la legislación extranjera. Luego, señalan que el rol protector del Estado en la relación de consumo es reducir las asimetrías informativas, pero no existe una obligación total de divulgación de información en el mercado. Por lo tanto, la asimetría informativa deja de ser relevante cuando el usuario del servicio tenga capacidad de negociación y recursos suficientes para tomar una decisión informada. Concluyen que es pertinente equiparar la aplicación de la Ley del Contrato de Seguro peruana a estándares internacionales.

Nel primo capitolo si propone una rassegna della letteratura di ambito economico e manageriale in tema di Responsabilità Sociale d’Impresa (RSI). Successivamente, si identificano le peculiarità degli attori operanti nel settore bancario etico. Infine, si comparano i risultati degli studi sul comportamento delle banche etiche con quelli disponibili sulle banche tradizionali. Il secondo capitolo confronta le condizioni di rifinanziamento delle banche sociali con quelle delle banche standard, quando le prime dispongono di informazioni private sulla qualità dei clienti. Ciò comporta il noto problema dell’hold-up, che tuttavia può essere attenuato dai costi delle peculiari attività di selezione e monitoraggio delle banche etiche. Ne risulta che, indipendentemente dalla qualità del cliente, le banche standard potrebbero offrire condizioni di prestito più vantaggiose di quelle delle banche etiche. Il terzo capitolo usa un modello spaziale per descrivere come le banche sociali e standard definiscono i loro tassi di interesse quando competono nel mercato dei depositi e dei prestiti. Come suggerisce l’evidenza empirica, i risparmiatori delle banche sociali sono disposti ad accettare tassi più bassi di quelli del mercato. Pertanto, si determinano le condizioni per cui ciò si verifica e si studia quando questo è compatibile con tassi più bassi anche sui prestiti. / In the first chapter, we begin with a survey on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in economics, management and business literatures. Then we identify the peculiarities of the agents operating in the social banking sector. Thereafter, we compare and contrast the contributions focused on the behavior of social banks with those available on traditional lenders. The second chapter compares the refinancing behavior of social banks with that of standard lenders when the former have inside information on the quality of the borrowers. This entails the renowned hold-up problem which, however, can be mitigated by the costs of the ethical screening and monitoring activities of social banks. As a result, standard banks may offer better loan contracts and attract high quality borrowers. The third chapter proposes a spatial competition model to investigate how standard and social banks set their interest rates when they compete in the deposit and loan markets. As the empirical evidence suggests, social depositors are willing to accept returns lower than the market level. Therefore we determine under which conditions social banks pay deposit rates lower than those of standard banks and when this is compatible with lower rates also on loans.

Problemformulering och syfte: Hållbarhet och miljövänliga produkter har under senare år blivit ett viktigt samtalsämne, inte minst när det gäller produktion och konsumtion av livsmedel. FN tog år 2015 fram 17 globala mål för hållbar utveckling, med ambitionen att uppnå social, ekologisk och ekonomisk hållbarhet. I en mindre kontext har detta påverkat hur företag ska upprätta en hållbar verksamhet. De regelverk som finns inom området gäller större företag. Syftet med denna uppsats är därför att skapa en uppfattning om hur mindre livsmedelsföretag arbetar med implementering av hållbarhet med hjälp av styrmedel. Studien ska öka förståelsen för vilka utmaningar mindre livsmedelsföretag ställs inför när det gäller att implementera hållbar utveckling och hur de använder sig av styrmedel för att föra verksamheten och dess aktörer i en gemensam riktning mot ett företagsamt ansvarstagande. Metod: Studien är en kvalitativ tvärsnittsstudie med abduktiv ansats. Empirin har samlats in med hjälp av semistrukturerade intervjuer och observationer. Slutsatser: Genom tolkning av empirin har vi kommit fram till ett flertal slutsatser, bland annat att butikernas tillvägagångssätt gällande hållbarhetsarbetet till stor del beror på om koncernen är centralstyrd eller decentraliserad. Även att styrmedlen är viktiga i implementeringen av hållbarhetsarbetet, speciellt de informella och informativa när det gäller att inspirera sin personal och omvärld. De svårigheter som förekommer beror dels på lagar och regler, men också på en låg efterfrågan på hållbara produkter från kunderna. / Problem statement & purpose: Sustainability and environmentally friendly products have become an important topic in the last years, primarily when it comes to production and consumption of food. In 2015, the UN presented seventeen global goals for sustainable development, which have the ambition to achieve social, environmental, and economical sustainability. In a smaller context, affects how companies should work sustainably. In an early stage in the study, we discovered that national regulations of establishing sustainability apply to larger companies. Therefore, the purpose of the study focus on answering how smaller grocery stores implements ecologic, economic, and social sustainability within their organization by control means and the challenges may arise. Method: This is a qualitative cross-sectional study with an abductive approach. The empirical section is conducted from semi-structured interviews and observations. Conclusions: Interpretation of the material has led the study to several conclusions, among others that the store's course of action when it comes to the sustainability work depends on whether the business group's management control is centralized or decentralized. As well that the control means are important to implement sustainability, especially the informal and informative ones when it comes to inspiring staff and the rest of society. Also, that challenges in maintaining and developing sustainability are due to laws and regulations, but also a low demand for sustainable products from customers.

Sweden is known for being at the forefront of becoming a cashless society.However, cash continues to be an important part of the payment ecosystem butthere are limited studies and data regarding the preference for holding cash. Previousstudies have shown that the use of cash is declining with regards to comers and thatthere are behavior differences between cultures and sociodemographic groups inregards to characteristics and preferences for payment methods. The aim of thisstudy was to investigate the informational attributes that drives the preference forholding cash by studying two extreme cases, Sweden which is a pioneer of cashlesssociety, and Germany which is one of the most conservative cash-intensivecountries in the Western world. Primary quantitative data was derived fromstandardized questionnaires issued in both countries by Loomis AB; the data wasdescribed and analyzed with applicable statistical procedures. A multivariate analysiswas performed on a specific segment of the collected data were the respondents hadbeen asked to rate cash associated statements based on their agreeableness towardsthem. These segments were then examined through a Principal component analysisto determine the underlying dimensions regarding preferences for cash. Our resultssuggest that Germans withdrew cash more frequently, from a wider spectrum ofdenominations and carried it to a larger extend than Swedes. Swedes made limitedwithdrawals, of small denominations and preferred to carry smaller amounts of cash.The results also show that there were differences in the perception and preferencesfor cash between sociodemographic groups, with e.g. older age groups being used to itand the youngest using it due to ‘status quo bias’. The main conclusions include thatthe informational attributes such as security, anonymity, ease of use and paymentinfrastructure was the main drives for the preferences of holding cash. / Sverige är känt för att vara i framkanten gällande transformationen till att bli ettkontantlöst samhälle. Kontanter fortsätter dock att vara en viktig del avbetalningsekosystemet, men det finns begränsade studier och data om preferensenför att hålla kontanter. Tidigare studier har visat att användningen av kontanterminskat i dagligvaru- och sällanköpshandeln och att det finns beteendeskillnadermellan kulturer och sociodemografiska grupper med avseende på egenskaper ochpreferenser för betalningsmetoder. Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka deinformativa attribut som driver preferensen för att hålla pengar genom att studeratvå extrema fall, Sverige som är en pionjär gällande det kontantlösa samhället ochTyskland som är ett av de mest konservativa kontantanvändande länderna ivästvärlden. Kvantitativa data härleddes från standardiserade frågeformulärutfärdade i de båda länderna av Loomis AB; data beskrevs och analyserades medtillämpliga statistiska förfaranden, mer specifikt en multivariantanalys som gjordespå ett visst segment av de insamlade uppgifterna, där de svarande blev ombedda attbedöma kontantanvändningen genom associerade uttalanden baserat på derasöverensstämmelse med dem. Dessa segment undersöktes sedan genom enhuvudkomponentanalys för att bestämma de underliggande dimensionerna gällandepreferenser för kontanter. Våra resultat tyder på att tyskar tar ut pengar merfrekvent, från ett bredare spektrum av valörer och bär i större utsträckning merkontanter än svenskar. Svenskar har en begränsad uttagsfrekvens, främst av småvalörer samt att de föredrar att bära kontanter i en liten utsträckning. Fortsatt visarResultaten att det fanns skillnader i perception och preferenser för kontanter mellansociodemografiska grupper, exempelvis är äldre åldersgrupper vana vidkontantanvändning och att de yngre åldersgrupperna använder kontanter på grundav "status quo bias". De viktigaste slutsatserna är att de informativa attribut somsäkerhet, anonymitet, användarvänlighet och betalningsinfrastruktur är de viktigastedrivkrafterna gällande preferensen att hålla kontanter.

Neste trabalho, foi proposta uma nova família de distribuições, a qual permite modelar dados de sobrevivência quando a função de risco tem formas unimodal e U (banheira). Ainda, foram consideradas as modificações das distribuições Weibull, Fréchet, half-normal generalizada, log-logística e lognormal. Tomando dados não-censurados e censurados, considerou-se os estimadores de máxima verossimilhança para o modelo proposto, a fim de verificar a flexibilidade da nova família. Além disso, um modelo de regressão locação-escala foi utilizado para verificar a influência de covariáveis nos tempos de sobrevida. Adicionalmente, conduziu-se uma análise de resíduos baseada nos resíduos deviance modificada. Estudos de simulação, utilizando-se de diferentes atribuições dos parâmetros, porcentagens de censura e tamanhos amostrais, foram conduzidos com o objetivo de verificar a distribuição empírica dos resíduos tipo martingale e deviance modificada. Para detectar observações influentes, foram utilizadas medidas de influência local, que são medidas de diagnóstico baseadas em pequenas perturbações nos dados ou no modelo proposto. Podem ocorrer situações em que a suposição de independência entre os tempos de falha e censura não seja válida. Assim, outro objetivo desse trabalho é considerar o mecanismo de censura informativa, baseado na verossimilhança marginal, considerando a distribuição log-odd log-logística Weibull na modelagem. Por fim, as metodologias descritas são aplicadas a conjuntos de dados reais. / In this study, a new family of distributions was proposed, which allows to model survival data when the function of risk has unimodal shapes and U (bathtub). Modifications of the Weibull, Fréchet, generalized half-normal, log-logistic and lognormal distributions were considered. Taking censored and non-censored data, we consider the maximum likelihood estimators for the proposed model, in order to check the flexibility of the new family. Also, it was considered a location-scale regression model, to verify the influence of covariates on survival times. Additionally, a residual analysis was conducted based on modified deviance residuals. For different parameters fixed, percentages of censoring and sample sizes, several simulation studies were performed with the objective of verify the empirical distribution of the martingale type and modified deviance residuals. To detect influential observations, measures of local influence were used, which are diagnostic measures based on small perturbations in the data or in the proposed model. It can occur situations in which the assumption of independence between the failure and censoring times is not valid. Thus, another objective of this work is to consider the informative censoring mechanism based on the marginal likelihood, considering the log-odd log-logistic Weibull distribution in modelling. Finally, the methodologies described are applied to sets of real data.

Neste trabalho, foi proposta uma nova família de distribuições, a qual permite modelar dados de sobrevivência quando a função de risco tem formas unimodal e U (banheira). Ainda, foram consideradas as modificações das distribuições Weibull, Fréchet, half-normal generalizada, log-logística e lognormal. Tomando dados não-censurados e censurados, considerou-se os estimadores de máxima verossimilhança para o modelo proposto, a fim de verificar a flexibilidade da nova família. Além disso, um modelo de regressão locação-escala foi utilizado para verificar a influência de covariáveis nos tempos de sobrevida. Adicionalmente, conduziu-se uma análise de resíduos baseada nos resíduos deviance modificada. Estudos de simulação, utilizando-se de diferentes atribuições dos parâmetros, porcentagens de censura e tamanhos amostrais, foram conduzidos com o objetivo de verificar a distribuição empírica dos resíduos tipo martingale e deviance modificada. Para detectar observações influentes, foram utilizadas medidas de influência local, que são medidas de diagnóstico baseadas em pequenas perturbações nos dados ou no modelo proposto. Podem ocorrer situações em que a suposição de independência entre os tempos de falha e censura não seja válida. Assim, outro objetivo desse trabalho é considerar o mecanismo de censura informativa, baseado na verossimilhança marginal, considerando a distribuição log-odd log-logística Weibull na modelagem. Por fim, as metodologias descritas são aplicadas a conjuntos de dados reais. / In this study, a new family of distributions was proposed, which allows to model survival data when the function of risk has unimodal shapes and U (bathtub). Modifications of the Weibull, Fréchet, generalized half-normal, log-logistic and lognormal distributions were considered. Taking censored and non-censored data, we consider the maximum likelihood estimators for the proposed model, in order to check the flexibility of the new family. Also, it was considered a location-scale regression model, to verify the influence of covariates on survival times. Additionally, a residual analysis was conducted based on modified deviance residuals. For different parameters fixed, percentages of censoring and sample sizes, several simulation studies were performed with the objective of verify the empirical distribution of the martingale type and modified deviance residuals. To detect influential observations, measures of local influence were used, which are diagnostic measures based on small perturbations in the data or in the proposed model. It can occur situations in which the assumption of independence between the failure and censoring times is not valid. Thus, another objective of this work is to consider the informative censoring mechanism based on the marginal likelihood, considering the log-odd log-logistic Weibull distribution in modelling. Finally, the methodologies described are applied to sets of real data.

From  the  process  of  globalization  of  law,  the  comparative constitutional law has gained a leading role for a better understanding and solving old and new constitutional national and international challenges. Therefore, some assumptions and considerations to take into account are presented for the development of the national constitutional order within the framework of the comparative constitutional law, such as universality and relativism of human rights; the concept of power and constitutional democracy; standards of free elections and judicial independence; freedom of expression, media pluralism and access to public information; the economic,social and cultural rights; the new fundamental rights. / A partir del proceso de globalización del derecho, el derecho constitucional comparado ha ido adquiriendo un rol protagónico para una mejor comprensión y solución de los viejos y nuevos desafíos constitucionales, tanto nacionales como internacionales. Por ello, se presentan algunos presupuestos y consideraciones temáticas a tomar en cuenta para el desarrollo del ordenamiento constitucional nacional en el marco del derecho constitucional comparado, tales como la universalidad y el relativismo de los derechos humanos; el concepto de poder y democracia constitucional; los estándares de elecciones libres e independencia judicial; la libertad de expresión, la pluralidad informativa y el acceso a la información pública; los  derechos  económicos,  sociales  y  culturales,  y;  los nuevos derechos fundamentales.