Entre hier et aujourd’hui, entre la culture spectaculaire de la fin du XIXe siècle, le cinéma et la pratique des jeux vidéo, cette thèse explore les enjeux critiques d’une pensée des rapports du corps à la machine au prisme de la notion benjaminienne d’innervation. A partir d’une notion historiographique élaborée au sein de la thèse, celle de « continuité critique » qui consiste à déterminer des phénomènes de permanence à travers l’histoire, notre travail vise à définir une critique opératoire des nouveaux médias. Depuis les notions d’innervation et de continuité critique, nous étudions dans une perspective historique et théorique deux « états du corps » déterminant des points de résonance manifestes entre passé et présent. L’un se situe au tournant du siècle, l’autre au cours des années 1980. Le premier concerne le devenir-attraction des machines autour de 1900. Dans le prolongement de Tom Gunning nous pensons une telle attraction dans les termes d’un corps à corps entre le spectateur et la machine. À travers la culture visuelle et spectaculaire fin-de-siècle, nous identifions un motif récurrent : le voyage immobile. Nous étudions alors l’actualité critique d’un tel motif jusqu’à nos jours comme quelque chose qui, en dépit des innovations techniques, n’a pas changé. Le second état s’intéresse cette fois-ci aux transformations qui concernent les rapports du corps à l’écran dans la pratique du jeu vidéo. Il s’agit d’étudier cette fois-ci un ensemble de représentations qui apparaissent entre le début des années 1980 et le milieu des années 1990 et attestant la récurrence d’un autre motif : l’écran traversé. L’étude de ces deux motifs nous permet, par le biais de l’histoire, de formuler une critique des nouveaux médias sur le terrain-même de la nouveauté. / Between past and present, between the turn-of-the-century spectacular culture, cinema and video games, our thesis explores the critical aspects of body-machine relationships understandings regarding Walter Benjamin’s concept of innervation. From a historiographical concept formulated within this work, i. e. “critical continuity” which consists in crafting permanencies though history, our purpose is to delineate an operating critic of the new media. From the concepts of innervation and critical continuity, we explore two defining “state of body” to draw resonances between past and present. One takes place at the turn of the century while the other takes place during the 1980’s. The former concerns the becoming-attraction of the machines circa 1900. Extending Tom Gunning’s concept, we understand such an attraction as a corporeal relationship between the spectator’s body and the machine. Through 1900’s visual and spectacular culture, we examine a recurring topos: the immobile voyage. We find and explore the critical topicality of such a topos up to present day as something that has never changed despite technical innovations. The latter state explores the transformations regarding the body-screen relationships in video game practice. We study a collection of representations appearing between the early 1980’s up to the middle of the 1990’s featuring another recurring topos: the screen crossed whether by the game’s universe whether by the player. These two topoi help us to conceive a critic of the new media on the very basis of novelty.

A facoemulsificação é, atualmente, considerada a técnica de eleição no tratamento da catarata, uma das principais causas de perda de visão, em cães. O procedimento demanda a realização de incisões na córnea para acesso à câmara anterior. Tais incisões, a despeito da extensão reduzida, podem lesar a inervação da córnea, comprometendo sua sensibilidade e, consequentemente, influenciar a produção lacrimal. Objetivando-se avaliar tais intercorrências, concebeu-se aferir a sensibilidade corneana e a produção lacrimal aquosa em cães submetidos à facoemulsificação. Para tanto, tais parâmetros foram investigados em 20 cães com idade, sexo, raça e peso variáveis. Os procedimentos cirúrgicos foram realizados em um único olho (OT), sendo o olho não operado utilizado como controle (OC). A sensibilidade da córnea foi mensurada com o estesiômetro de Cochet-Bonnet® e a produção lacrimal pelos testes do fenol vermelho e de Schirmer, em ambos os olhos. Os parâmetros foram aferidos previamente ao procedimento cirúrgico (M0 - valores basais) e, posteriormente, após sete dias (M1), 15 dias (M2), 30 dias (M3), 90 dias (M4) e 180 dias (M5). Os valores da produção lacrimal aferida com o teste do fenol vermelho, em M1, não diferiram dos obtidos previamente à cirurgia (M0), nos OT e OC; diferenças significativas foram observadas de M2 a M5, com valores superiores aos basais (M0), em ambos os olhos. Os resultados da mensuração lacrimal com o teste de Schirmer e da sensibilidade corneana à estesiometria (em cm e mm/g2) não diferiram dos basais (M0) em quaisquer dos períodos de avaliação (M1 a M5), em ambos os olhos. Os resultados obtidos ao estudo permitiram verificar que a realização da cirurgia de catarata por facoemulsificação, como fora proposto, não resulta em diminuição da sensibilidade corneana e produção lacrimal aquosa. / Phacoemulsification is considered the technique of choice for surgical extraction of cataracts, which is a leading cause of blindness in dogs. The procedure requires corneal incisions to enter the anterior chamber. These incisions, despite their reduced extensions, may damage the corneal innervation, compromising its sensitivity and, also, the tear production. Aiming to evaluate these consequences, this study intended to measure the corneal sensitivity and aqueous tear production in dogs undergoing phacoemulsification. These parameters were evaluated in 20 dogs, with different ages, genders, breeds and weights. Surgical procedures were performed in one eye (OT), and the fellow eye was used as a control (OC). Corneal sensitivity was measured with the Cochet-Bonnet® aesthesiometer and tear production by the phenol thread red test and Schirmer tear test, in both eyes. The parameters were measured prior to the surgery (M0 - baseline values) and after seven days (M1), 15 days (M2), 30 days (M3), 90 days (M4) and 180 days (M5). Tear production values measured with the phenol red test, in M1, were not different from the values measured prior to the surgery (M0), in OT and OC; significant differences were noticed from M2 to M5, with higher values when compared to baseline values (M0), in both eyes. Schirmer tear test and corneal sensitivity (in cm and mm/g2) values were not different from basal values (M0) in any of the evaluation times (M1 to M5), in both eyes. Our study outcomes suggest that phacoemulsification, as proposed previously, does not decrease the corneal sensitivity and aqueous tear production.

La souris "dystoniamusculorum" (Dstdt-j) résulte d'une mutation spontanée autosomale récessive d'un gène codant pour la dystonine, protéine du cytosquelette qui s'exprime normalement dans les neurones sensitifs du système nerveux périphérique, mais aussi dans de nombreuses structures du système nerveux central. Elle est caractérisée par une dégénérescence des fibres nerveuses affectant principalement les voies afférentes sensitives du système nerveux périphérique et les afférences secondaires cérébelleuses et thalamiques. Des troubles posturaux et une sévère ataxie apparaissent avec les dégénérescences. Une altération des muscles squelettiques est associée. Afin d'étudier l'incidence des troubles du transport axonal sur l'activité métabolique de la fibre nerveuse et l'impact de la dégénérescence sensitive sur les fonctions motrices, une analyse histopathologique et biochimique comparative du système nerveux central et des muscles squelettiques est effectuée sur des souris de souche B6C3Fea /a-Dstdt-j, âgées de 42 à 54 jours réparties un groupe de souris homozygotes Dstdt-j et un groupe contrôle, formé de souris homozygotes normales et hétérozygotes. En plus des dégénérescences afférentes périphériques, l'étude histopathologique montre des altérations centrales au niveau de centres segmentaires et de différentes structures du système extra-pyramidal comme le cervelet, le noyau rouge et les noyaux du pont. Une évaluation quantitative de l'activité métabolique régionale par marquage histochimique de la cytochrome oxydase (enzyme du complexe IV de la phosphorylation oxydative) est effectuée sur l'ensemble de l'encéphale et de la moelle épinière cervicale. Elle met en évidence une hyperactivité métabolique des voies de la proprioception inconsciente, affectant principalement les structures du tronc cérébral et du cervelet, et plus spécifiquement des structures motrices impliquées dans l'équilibre, le tonus musculaire et les réflexes posturaux. Une étude de l'innervation cholinergique est effectuée par marquage histochimique de l'acétylcholinestérase (AChE). Des augmentations importantes de l'activité AChE sont observées dans les structures cibles du noyau cholinergique tegmental pontique, à savoir le thalamus servant à l'activation corticale, le striatum et certains noyaux mésencéphaliques connectés au striatum, impliqués dans le contrôle des mouvements. Des altérations structuro-fonctionnelles des trois muscles observés (langue, muscle masséter et flexordigitorumsuperficialis) illustrent un tableau clinique d'hypotonicité et d'hypoactivité musculaire. Une dégénérescence partielle des fibres musculaires semble indiquer que ces modifications sont conséquentes de la lésion nerveuse plutôt que d'une atteinte intrinsèque des fibres musculaires. La présente étude sert à comprendre la physiopathologie 1) des neuropathies sensitives humaines présentant des atteintes similaires comme l'ataxie de Friedreich, ou la forme infantile de l'ataxie spino-cérébélleuse, 2) de déafférentations trigéminales pouvant survenir par compressions iatrogènes lors d'actes chirurgicaux / The "dystoniamusculorum" (Dstdt-J) mouse is the result of a recessive autosomal mutation of the dystonin (dst) gene responsible for the expression of a protein of the cytoskeleton, normally present in sensory peripheral neurons and numerous central nervous structures. The mutation is characterised by primary degeneration of peripheral afferent fibers followed by degenerative processes in secondary cerebellar and thalamic afferents. Postural reflex dysfunction and a severe ataxia occurat the same time as peripheral neurodegenerative processes. To study the impact of axonal transport alteration on neuronal activity as well as sensory degeneration on motorfunctions, histopathatological and biochemical studies have were performed on brain and skeletal muscles of B6C3Fea /a-Dstdt-j mice displayed in two groups, homozygotes Dstdt-J and controls. In addition to sensory defects, histopathological evaluation showed central alterations affecting the segmentar nuclei and motor control regions, such as cerebellum, red nucleus, and pontine nuclei. Regional metabolism assessed by cytochrome oxidase histochemistry showed hypermetabolic activity in cerebellum and motor regions of the brain stem involved in equilibrium, muscle tonicity, and postural reflexes. Brain cholinergic innervation was performed by histochemical labelling of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity. Enzymatic hyperactivity was observed in target structures of the cholinergic pedunculo-pontine tegmental nucleus, the thalamus, and the basal ganglia. The morphological and functional alterations observed in the three skeletal muscles (masseteric, flexor digitorum superficialis and tongue) were characterized by muscle hypotonicity and hypoactivity. A partial muscular fiber degeneration was observed, probably as a result of sensory denervation rather than an intrinsic defect of muscle fibers. Several sensory neuropathies (Friedreich's ataxia or infant-onset spinocerebellar ataxia) have similar clinicopathological features. The present studies are of interest in understanding the physiopathology of these lesions. They can also contribute in the study of the pathological effects of trigeminal deafferentation induced by compression

Quinze cabeças de tubarões Carcharias taurus (Rafinesque, 1810), pertencentes à Ordem Lamniformes e Família Odontaspididae, foram utilizadas para a realização desse estudo. O material destinado à análise foi obtido junto ao Terminal de Pesca de Santos, localizado em Santos, São Paulo, e descartado pelos pescadores por não apresentar valor comercial. A dissecação das cabeças visou caracterizar os músculos mandibulares, bem como descrever sua inervação realizada pelo ramo mandibular do nervo trigêmeo. Os músculos mandibulares de C. taurus são representados por: músculo pré-orbital, músculo levantador do palatoquadrado, músculo quadrado-mandibular e músculo intermandibular. O nervo trigêmeo de C. taurus origina-se em uma porção lateral da medula oblonga e ramifica-se na órbita para originar o ramo mandibular responsável pela inervação dos músculos derivados do arco mandibular. Os ramos proximais do ramo mandibular do nervo trigêmeo inervam o músculo levantador do palatoquadrado, o músculo pré-orbital e o músculo quadrado-mandibular recebem fibras dos ramos intermediários do ramo mandibular do nervo trigêmeo e a ramificação distal do mesmo é visualizada no músculo intermandibular. / During this study were used fifteen of Carcharias taurus (Rafinesque, 1810) (Odontaspididae, Lamniformes, Elasmobranchii) shark heads. The analised material was obteined in Terminal de Pesca de Santos, located in Santos, São Paulo. The material was descarded by the fishers because it hasn´t none comercial value. The heads dissection is foccated in the caracterization of the mandibular muscles and to discrebed the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve innervation as well. The C. taurus mandibular muscles are represented by: muscle pré-orbital, muscle levantador do palatoquadrado, muscle quadrado-mandibular and muscle intermandibular. The origin of the trimeginal nerve of C. taurus is located in a lateral portion of the medula oblonga. In the orbita it ramificates to originate de mandibular branch that inervates the muscles which is derived from the mandibular arch. The mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve\'s proximal branches inervetes the muscle levantador do palatoquadrado, the muscles pré-orbitall and quadrado-mandibular receives fibers from the intermediate branches of the mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve and the distal ramification of the mandibular branch are visualised in the muscle intermandibularis.

Bibliography: leaves 184-220.

Tendinosis is a condition of chronic pain that afflicts several human tendons, not least the patellar tendon, in which case it is often clinically referred to as ‘jumper’s knee’. The exact mechanisms behind tendinosis are yet not fully understood. One draw-back in the case of patellar tendinosis has been the lack of knowledge of the innervation patterns of the human patellar tendon. It cannot be excluded that the processes of tendinosis are influenced by nerve mediators, released from nerve endings or from stimulated cells inside the tendon. Thus, the studies of the present thesis aimed to 1) map the general, sensory, cholinergic and sympathetic innervation patterns of the human patellar tendon, in both the tendon tissue proper and the loose paratendinous connective tissue surrounding the tendon, and 2) investigate the possible existence of a production of signal substances, traditionally associated with neurons, in non-neuronal tendon cells, and to see if there are signs of local cholinergic and catecholaminergic signaling pathways. Biopsies of both normal pain-free patellar tendons and patellar tendons from patients with chronic painful tendinosis were collected and investigated. The main method utilized was immunohistochemistry, using antibodies directed against synthesizing enzymes for acetylcholine and catecholamines, against muscarinic and adrenergic receptors, and against markers of general and sensory innervation. In situ hybridization (ISH) to detect mRNA for the cholinergic/catecholaminergic synthesizing enzymes was also used. It was found that the loose paratendinous connective tissue of the patellar tendon was rather richly innervated by nerve structures. These consisted of large nerve fascicles, as well as perivascular innervation in the walls of some of the larger arteries and smaller blood vessels. It was found that part of the nerve structures corresponded to sensory afferents, and that some conformed to cholinergic and, especially, sympathetic nerve fibers. The tendon tissue proper was strikingly less innervated than the paratendinous tissue. The sparse innervation that was found in the tendon tissue proper was seen in narrow zones of loose connective tissue and blood vessels, interspersed between the collagen bundles. The overall impression was that the patterns of distribution of the general, sensory, and autonomic innervations of tendinosis tendon tissue were similar to those of normal tendon tissue proper. The most pioneering findings were the immunohistochemical observations of an expression of enzymes related to production of both acetylcholine and catecholamines within the tendon cells (tenocytes) themselves, as well as of a presence of the receptors for these substances on the same cells; features that were predominantly seen in tendinosis tendons. The observations of the synthesizing enzymes for acetylcholine and catecholamines in tenocytes were confirmed by ISH findings of mRNA for these enzymes in the tenocytes. Immunoreactions for muscarinic and adrenergic receptors were also found in blood vessel walls and in some of the nerve fascicles. In summary, this thesis presents novel information on the innervation patterns of the human patellar tendon, in healthy individuals with pain-free tendons as well as in patients with chronic painful tendinosis. Furthermore, it gives the first evidence of the presence of a local, non-neuronal production in the tendon tissue of signal substances normally seen in neurons, and a basis for these substances to affect the tenocytes as these cells also display muscarinic and adrenergic receptors. Thus, the results indicate an existence of autocrine and/or paracrine cholinergic/catecholaminergic systems in the tendon tissue; systems that seem to be up-regulated in tendinosis. This is of great interest as it is known that stimulation of receptors for both catecholamines and acetylcholine can lead to cell proliferation, interfere with pain sensation, influence collagen production, and take part in vasoregulation, as well as, in the case of adrenergic receptors, promote cell degeneration and apotosis. All these processes represent biological functions/events that are reported to be affected in tendinosis. In conclusion, despite the fact that there is very limited innervation within the patellar tendon tissue proper, it is here shown that effects of signal substances traditionally associated with neurons seem to occur in the tissue, via a local production of these substances in tenocytes.

Pain of the musculoskeletal system is one of the most common reasons for people seeking medical attention, and is also one of the major factors that prevent patients from working. Chronic tendon pain, tendinopathy, affects millions of workers world-wide, and the Achilles tendon is an important structure often afflicted by this condition. The pathogenesis of tendinopathy is poorly understood, but it is thought to be of multifactoral aetiology. It is known that tendon pain is often accompanied not only by impaired function but also by structural tissue changes, like vascular proliferation, irregular collagen organisation, and hypercellularity, whereby the condition is called tendinosis. In light of the poor knowledge of tendinosis pathophysiology and recent findings of a non-neuronal signalling system in tendon tissue, the contributory role of neuropeptides such as substance P (SP) has gained increased interest. SP, known for afferent pain signalling in the nervous system, also has multiple efferent functions and has been described to be expressed by non-neuronal cells. As pain is the most prominent symptom of tendinopathy, the focus of the studies in this thesis was the innervation patterns of the tissue ventral to the Achilles tendon (i.e. the tissue targeted in many contemporary treatment methods) as well as the distribution of SP and its preferred receptor, the neurokinin-1 receptor (NK-1R), in the tendon tissue itself. It was hereby hypothesised that the source of SP affecting the Achilles tendon might be the main cells of the tendon tissue (the tenocytes) as well as paratendinous nerves, and that SP might be involved in tendinosis- development. The studies were conducted, via morphological staining methods including immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridisation, on tendon biopsies from patients suffering from Achilles tendinosis and on those from healthy volunteers. The hypothesis of the thesis was furthermore tested using an experimental animal model (rabbit) of Achilles tendinopathy, which was first validated. The model was based on a previously established overuse protocol of repetitive exercise. In the human biopsies of the tissue ventral to the Achilles tendon, there was a marked occurrence of sympathetic innervation, but also sensory, SP-containing, nerve fibres. NK-1R was expressed on blood vessels and nerve fascicles of the paratendinous tissue, but also on the tenocytes of the tendon tissue proper itself, and notably more so in patients suffering from tendinosis. Furthermore, the human tenocytes displayed not only NK-1R mRNA but also mRNA for SP. The animal model was shown to produce objectively verified tendinosis-like changes, such as hypercellularity and increased vascularity, in the rabbit Achilles tendons, after a minimum of three weeks of the exercise protocol. The contralateral leg of the animals in the model was found to be an unreliable control, as bilateral changes occured. The model furthermore demonstrated that exogenously administered SP triggers an inflammatory response in the paratendinous tissue and accelerates the intratendinous tendinosis-like changes such that they now occur after only one week of the protocol. Injections of saline as a control showed similar results as SP concerning hypercellularity, but did not lead to vascular changes or pronounced paratendinous inflammation. In summary, this thesis concludes that interactions between the peripheral sympathetic and sensory nervous systems may occur in Achilles tendinosis at the level of the ventral paratendinous tissue, a region thought to be of great importance in chronic tendon pain since many successful treatments are directed toward it. Furthermore, the distribution of NK-1R:s in the Achilles tendon described in these studies gives a basis for SP, whether produced by nerves mainly outside the tendon or by tenocytes within the tendon, to affect blood vessels, nerve structures, and/or tendon cells, especially in tendinosis patients. In light of this and of previously known SP-effects, such as stimulation of angiogenesis, pain signalling, and cell proliferation, the proposed involvement of SP in tendinosis development seems likely. Indeed, the animal model of Achilles tendon overuse confirms that SP does induce vascular proliferation and hypercellularity in tendon tissue, thus strengthening theories of SP playing a role in tendinosis pathology.

Graduation date: 1993

Muscle architecture, innervation pattern and fiber type distribution of lumbar multifidus (LMT) throughout its volume was quantified. Musculotendinous (n=10) and neural components (n=3) were dissected and digitized from thirteen embalmed cadaveric specimens. The data were imported into Autodesk® Maya® 2008 to generate 3D neuromuscular models of each specimen. Architectural parameters (fiber bundle length, FBL; fiber bundle angle, FBA; tendon length) were quantified from the models using customized software. The medial branch of the posterior rami (L1-L5) was traced through LMT to determine its distribution. Using immunohistochemistry, Type I/II muscle fibers were identified in 29 muscle biopsies from one fresh frozen specimen. The total area and number of each cell type was calculated using Visiopharm® (image analysis software). Architectural and fiber type data were analyzed using ANOVA with Tukey’s post-hoc test (p ≤ 0.05). From L1-L4, LMT had three architecturally distinct regions: superficial, intermediate and deep. At L5, intermediate LMT was absent. Mean FBL decreased significantly from superficial (5.8 ± 1.6cm) to deep regions (2.9 ± 1.1cm) as did volume (superficial, 5.6 ± 2.3ml; deep, 0.7 ± 0.3ml). In contrast, mean FBA increased from superficial to deep. The medial branch of the posterior ramus (L1-L5) supplied the five bands of LMT. Each medial branch in turn divided to supply the deep, intermediate and superficial regions separately. The area occupied by Type I fibers was significantly less (p< 0.01) in the deep (56%) compared with the superficial regions (75%). Based on architecture and morphology, superficial LMT with the longest FBL and relatively small FBA is well designed for torque production and controlling the lumbar lordosis. Intermediate LMT with significantly longer FBL compared with the deep region and with its caudal to cranial line of action may help to control intersegmental stability. Furthermore, the absence of intermediate LMT at L5 and may contribute to the higher incidence of instability observed at the lumbosacral junction. Deep LMT with its short FBL, large FBA and proximity to the axis of spinal rotation may function to provide proprioceptive input to the CNS rather than a primary stabilizer of the lumbar spine.

Muscle architecture, innervation pattern and fiber type distribution of lumbar multifidus (LMT) throughout its volume was quantified. Musculotendinous (n=10) and neural components (n=3) were dissected and digitized from thirteen embalmed cadaveric specimens. The data were imported into Autodesk® Maya® 2008 to generate 3D neuromuscular models of each specimen. Architectural parameters (fiber bundle length, FBL; fiber bundle angle, FBA; tendon length) were quantified from the models using customized software. The medial branch of the posterior rami (L1-L5) was traced through LMT to determine its distribution. Using immunohistochemistry, Type I/II muscle fibers were identified in 29 muscle biopsies from one fresh frozen specimen. The total area and number of each cell type was calculated using Visiopharm® (image analysis software). Architectural and fiber type data were analyzed using ANOVA with Tukey’s post-hoc test (p ≤ 0.05). From L1-L4, LMT had three architecturally distinct regions: superficial, intermediate and deep. At L5, intermediate LMT was absent. Mean FBL decreased significantly from superficial (5.8 ± 1.6cm) to deep regions (2.9 ± 1.1cm) as did volume (superficial, 5.6 ± 2.3ml; deep, 0.7 ± 0.3ml). In contrast, mean FBA increased from superficial to deep. The medial branch of the posterior ramus (L1-L5) supplied the five bands of LMT. Each medial branch in turn divided to supply the deep, intermediate and superficial regions separately. The area occupied by Type I fibers was significantly less (p< 0.01) in the deep (56%) compared with the superficial regions (75%). Based on architecture and morphology, superficial LMT with the longest FBL and relatively small FBA is well designed for torque production and controlling the lumbar lordosis. Intermediate LMT with significantly longer FBL compared with the deep region and with its caudal to cranial line of action may help to control intersegmental stability. Furthermore, the absence of intermediate LMT at L5 and may contribute to the higher incidence of instability observed at the lumbosacral junction. Deep LMT with its short FBL, large FBA and proximity to the axis of spinal rotation may function to provide proprioceptive input to the CNS rather than a primary stabilizer of the lumbar spine.