The purpose of this study was to compare the relationship of body attitude to both dietary intake and selected personality characteristics. The study focused on the relationship between dietary intake and both body attitude and personality characteristics as well as differences in body attitude and personality characteristics between female college age lacrosse athletes, dance team members and controls. The subjects were 27 lacrosse players (mean age = 19.4 ± 1.1 y), 20 dance team members (mean age = 19.5 ± 1.4 y) and 64 non- athlete controls (mean age = 20.6 ± 1.5 y). Participants were administered the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2), the Ben-Tovim Walker Body Attitude Questionnaire, the Cognitive Behavioral Dieting Scale and a Silhouette Scale to assess body attitude and selected personality traits. Participants completed a 5-day diet record including 3 consecutive weekdays and 2 weekend days Group mean differences on body attitude and personality traits were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance. Post-hoc analyses were performed using the Tukey procedure and the Kruskal-Wallis Test. Relationships were determined between dietary intake, body attitude and personality traits utilizing the Pearson Product Moment Correlation procedures. Stepwise multiple regression techniques were utilized in the attempt to develop a valid and reliable prediction equation for dietary intake using body attitude and selected personality characteristics. Significant differences did exist between the athletic groups and the control group on interoceptive awareness, maturity fears, social insecurity, feelings of attractiveness, body dissatisfaction, perfectionism, bulimia, interpersonal distrust, dietary protein (g) intake, dietary fat (g) intake, dietary fiber (g) intake, and vitamin C (mg) intake. No significant differences were found between the lacrosse and dance team on dietary intake, body attitude or personality traits. Significant relationships did exist between dietary intake and body attitude measures in all three groups. In addition, significant relationships were also found to exist between body attitude measures and personality traits in all three groups. Five different prediction equations were generated using relationships from each individual group and then combined groups. The results of this study indicate that female athletes involved in both aesthetic and non-aesthetic sports, may be purposefully restricting total caloric intake as well as fat intake due to body image dissatisfaction during the competitive season. / Ph. D.

Appetite is a complex behavior which can be influenced by factors within the animal's body as well as the environment around it. Internal factors include hormonal and nutrient concentrations found in the blood stream and subsequent neuropeptide and neurotransmitter signaling in the hypothalamus. External factors, such as high ambient temperature (HAT), can indirectly affect appetite regulation through other neuroendocrine systems such as the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Understanding the physiological responses to endogenous factors and HAT exposure in birds will have implications in both the agricultural and biomedical fields. Thus, the purpose of this dissertation research was to explore the hypothalamic molecular mechanisms associated with food intake in broiler type chickens and Japanese quail, and the effect of HAT exposure on food intake in broiler type chickens. Broiler type chickens have undergone intense artificial selection for traits that promote rapid growth, consequently driving them to consume feed incessantly. It is hypothesized that broiler type chickens lack a mechanism that signals satiety, causing them to eat significantly more than layer type chickens. Selection for rapid growth of meat (muscle tissue) has made the broiler more susceptible to the deficits associated with HAT exposure, as animals composed primarily of muscle dissipate less heat while also producing more heat than those composed of fat. The Japanese quail have undergone relatively minor artificial selection compared to the chicken, suggesting that use of this model may provide insight into the mechanisms of appetite regulation in wild-type bird species. This research involved administrating appetite associated factors into the avian brain via an intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection including gastrin releasing peptide, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, neuropeptide AF, and prostaglandin D2. Additionally, I explored the effects of HAT on food intake, and on the efficacy of several ICV administered appetite associated factors including neuropeptide Y, corticotropin releasing factor and α-melanocyte stimulating hormone. After treatment administration, I measured changes in food intake and behavior, activation of hypothalamic nuclei including the arcuate nucleus, dorsomedial nucleus, lateral hypothalamus, paraventricular nucleus, and the ventromedial nucleus, and the nucleus of the hippocampal commissure. I then measured changes in gene expression in both whole hypothalamic samples and specific hypothalamic nuclei. The data from non-HAT associated studies provided information on the hypothalamic nuclei which respond to the various appetite associated factors and the molecular mechanisms mediating changes in appetite. The data from the HAT study provided information on the hypothalamic nuclei involved in the avian response to HAT exposure, and the molecular mechanisms involved in the effect on food intake. Overall, these data provide insight on the mechanisms associated with short-term regulation of appetite, and pathways associated with stress and food intake. / Doctor of Philosophy / Appetite regulation can be affected by factors both in the body and out in the environment. Understanding how both internal and external factors affect appetite regulation can have positive implications in both the agriculture industry as well as the biomedical field. In agriculture, animals exposed to high ambient temperatures often exhibit several deficits including immunosuppression, decreased body weight, and ultimately an increased risk of mortality. It is hypothesized that the factor linking negative wellbeing to heat exposure is a reduction in food intake. Animals aside, the prevalence of eating disorders has doubled worldwide every 6 years since the year 2000. These numbers have increased even more during the recent COVID-19 pandemic. In order to improve the wellbeing of both humans and animals exposed to stressing stimuli, it is imperative we understand how individual appetite associated factors affect food intake, and how external stressors can impact the normal physiology of the hypothalamus. Thus, the purpose of this dissertation was to elucidate the hypothalamic mechanisms mediating appetite regulation using broiler type chickens and Japanese quail as models. Related pathways and molecular mechanisms were explored for several appetite associated factors including gastrin releasing peptide, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, neuropeptide AF, and prostaglandin D2. Additionally, the effect of high ambient temperature on food intake, on the efficacy of several appetite associated factors including neuropeptide Y, corticotropin releasing factor and α-melanocyte stimulating hormone, and the hypothalamic pathways and molecular mechanisms mediating heat-induced anorexia were assessed.

In experiment 1, 24 multiparous Holsteins and 24 multiparous Jerseys were assigned at random to one of four diets containing either 1.25, 1.38, 1.50, or 1.63 Mcal NEL/kg DM to determine the effects of prepartum energy density on productivity. Cows were assigned to diets 28 d before expected calving and received a similar diet 0 to 60 d postpartum. Prepartum DMI increased linearly as dietary energy density increased. Non-esterified fatty acids did not differ for energy density and were greater for Holsteins. Milk and 4% FCM increased linearly as dietary energy density increased, although postpartum DMI was quadratic for energy density. Fat yield increased linearly with energy density and protein yield did not differ. Increasing prepartum diet energy density increased yield of milk and 4% FCM. In experiment 2, 26 multiparous and 18 primiparous Jerseys were assigned to one of two CP and rumen undegradable protein (RUP) concentrations 30 d before expected calving to determine the effects of CP and RUP on productivity. Cows received a similar diet 0 to 60 d postpartum. Prepartum CP concentrations were 12 and 15% and prepartum RUP (% of CP) concentrations were 30 and 45%. Dry matter intake was not affected by CP or RUP. Milk yield and 4% FCM yield did not differ for CP or RUP. In addition, milk protein concentration and yield were similar for CP and RUP. Positive calculated metabolizable protein balance for 12% CP and 30% RUP concentrations may have precluded responses to increasing prepartum CP and RUP. In experiment 3, 12 Holstein and 12 Jersey multiparous cows were assigned at random to diets containing 0 or 500 mg FeCO3/kg DM to investigate the effects of dietary Fe on milk production and Cu status. Hepatic Cu did not differ for breeds or Fe supplementation. For Jerseys, hepatic Fe was greater for cows receiving supplemental Fe. Hepatic Zn was similar for breed and Fe supplementation. Plasma Cu was greater for Jerseys compared to Holsteins and did not differ for Fe supplementation. Plasma Fe and Zn did not differ for breeds or Fe supplementation. Iron supplementation did not affect yield of milk or 4% FCM. Dietary Fe did not affect Cu status of Holstein and Jersey cows in this experiment. / Ph. D.

This study was to determine (1) if genetic selection for high (HWS) or low (LWS) body weight in chickens has altered the hypothalamic AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) system and (2) if this alteration contributes to the dissimilar feeding response to various appetite modulators between HWS and LWS lines. Compared to HWS, LWS chickens had higher levels of AMPK α and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) phosphorylation, which was caused by upregulation of the upstream factor calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase 2 (CAMKK β). There was greater mRNA expression of carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT1), leptin receptor (LEPR) and neuropeptide Y (NPY) and less mRNA expression of ACC α, fatty acid synthase (FAS), fat mass and obesity associated gene (FTO), pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and orexin in LWS than HWS chickens. At 5 days of age, intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of AICAR, 5-amino- 4-imidazolecarboxamide riboside, caused a quadratic dose-dependent decrease in food intake in LWS but not HWS chicks. Compound C, (6-(4-(2-piperidin-1-yl-ethoxy)-phenyl))-3-pyridin-4-yl-pyrazolo(1,5-a)-pyrimidine, caused a quadratic dose-dependent increase in food intake in HWS but not LWS chicks. The anorexigenic effect of AICAR in LWS chicks and orexigenic effect of Compound C in HWS chicks resulted from either activation or inhibition of other kinase pathways separate from AMPK. There is a lower threshold for the anorexigenic effect of ghrelin in LWS than HWS chicks, which was associated with differential hypothalamic AMPK signaling. ICV injection of ghrelin inhibited corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), 20-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (20HSD), glucocorticoid receptor (GR), CPT1 and FTO expression in LWS but not HWS chicks. Additionally, the hypothalamic mRNA level of ghrelin was significantly higher in LWS than HWS chicks, which may also contribute to the differential threshold response to ghrelin in these two lines. Obestatin caused a linear dose-dependent increase in food intake in HWS but not LWS chicks. The orexigenic effect of obestatin in HWS chicks was not associated with altered AMPK. Obestatin inhibited LEPR and FTO expression in HWS but not LWS chicks. Thus, selection for body weight may alter the hypothalamic response to ghrelin by the AMPK pathway, CRH pathway, CPT1 and FTO, and to obestatin by LEPR and FTO. / Ph. D.

Experiments were conducted to evaluate nitric oxide (NO) involvement in the leptin effect on food intake in both broiler and Leghorn chickens. The first experiment studied the effect of leptin combined with L-arginine on the food intake in broilers. Intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of human recombinant leptin injection decreased (P=.01) food intake from 15 to 150 minutes compared to the control group treated with artificial cerebrospinal fluid ( aCSF) while food intake was increased by L-arginine. Food intake between the group receiving leptin and L-arginine was similar to the control group. Therefore, broilers were sensitive to the anoregenic effects of leptin, while L-arginine, a NO precursor appeared to attenuate the leptin effect on food intake. The effect of leptin and L-NNA on food intake in broilers was measured in the second experiment. Lepin, L-NNA and leptin plus L-NNA decreased food intake. The NO inhibitor L-NNA tended to enhance the suppression of leptin on food intake. In the third experiment, using Leghorns instead of broilers, the ICV injection of leptin decreased food intake from 15 to 60 minutes postinjection (P=.05). However, food intake was not affected by injection of L-arginine plus leptin. Therefore, L-arginine appeared to antagonize the leptin inhibitory effect on food intake. A small increase food intake induced by L-arginine was also observed (P=.09). The change of food intake in Leghorns administered leptin and L-NNA were measured in Experiment 4. Food intake was decreased by L-NNA and leptin with the effects lasting 60 minutes, similar to that observed in broilers (P<0.0l). For group B (leptin treatment), there was decreased food intake within 45 minutes (P=.04) and the effect disappeared 60 minutes, post injection. Also, the results along with Experiment 2 demonstrated that NO mediated the effect of leptin in Leghorns. The fifth experiment investigated the change in concentration of metabolites of nitric oxide after injection of leptin within 30 minutes. The group treated with the leptin had a lower level of metabolites of nitric oxide in the hypothalamus than the control group (P=.004). This effect further demonstrates that leptin modulated feeding activity through its inhibition on nNOS activity in the hypothalamus. These results showed that both leptin and NO participated in the regulation of food intake in broiler and Leghorn chickens, and the effect of hypothalamic neuropeptidergic circuitry leptin on food intake was mediated by NO. / Master of Science

The present set of experiments were designed to examine the role of histamine, and its interaction with corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) and bombesin (BM) in food intake regulation of chickens. The hypothesis being tested was as follows: One component of the neuroregulation of food intake involves histaminergic activity in the hypothalamus, acting on either H1 or H2 receptors, how these receptors interact with CRF neurons and if BM elicits its effects on feeding through CRF release. Single Comb White Leghorn (SCWL) and broiler cockerels were utilized for these experiments. Birds were stereotaxically implanted with a 23-gauge thin-walled stainless steel guide cannula, and were provided a mash diet and water for ad libitum consumption. All compounds were infused into the right lateral ventricle. Effects were monitored at 15-minute intervals through three hours postinjection. Experiment 1 examined the effects of intracereboventricular (ICV) injections of histamine (HA) and two HA antagonists, the H1 receptor antagonist chloropheneramine maleate (CM) and H2 receptor antagonist cimetidine (CIM), on food and water consumption and body temperature. Histamine was infused using 0, 25, 50, and 100 µg per 10 µl of artificial cerebrospinal fluid (aCSF). Histamine significantly decreased food and water consumption (P< 0.05) over the three hour observation period in a dose-dependent manner. Histamine was then infused to observe if the decrease in water intake was dependent upon the decrease in food intake. Birds were not allowed access to feed during this experiment. Water intake was not affected by HA in either SCWL or broilers when food was not available. To observe the effects of HA on thermoregulation, HA was infused using the same dosages and body temperature recorded for three hours. Histamine produced hypothermia at a dose of 25 µg in SCWL cockerels, with a quadratic trend at 165 and 180 min. Broiler cockerels did not show hypothermia, but rather a constant hyperthermia compared to the control with a quadratic trend throughout the latter part of the experiment. The last phase of the first set of experiments, birds were pretreated with either CM or CIM (100 µg/10 µl aCSF) followed by HA. When the birds were pretreated with either CM or CIM, the hypophagic responses to HA were attenuated. The pair of experiments that utilized H1 and H2 receptors demonstrated that these receptors are involved in the neural regulation of food intake. These experiments also demonstrated that the aphagic effects of HA on food intake can be blocked with the pretreatment of antihistaminics affecting both H1 and H2 receptors. In Experiment 2, studies were conducted to determine if neuronal CRF elicited its effects on feeding through the release of HA. Birds were infused with 0 or 20 µg CRF and either 0 or 100 µg of CM or CIM. CRF decreased food and water intake in both SCWL and broiler cockerels. When birds were pretreated with CM, the hypophagic responses to CRF were attenuated. When birds were pretreated with CIM, the hypophagic responses of CRF were attenuated in broiler cockerels; this response was not seen in SCWL cockerels. Water intake followed a similar pattern. It was concluded that, contrary to studies showing that HA causes the release of CRF in other species, CRF may cause the release of HA in chickens. Experiment 3 was designed to investigate whether bombesin (BM) elicited its effects on feeding through the release of CRF. Birds were infused with either, 0 or 0.5 µg BM, 0 or 5 µg aCRF (9-41) (CRF antagonist), or a combination of both. These compounds were infused to test whether the effects of BM could be blocked with the pretreatment of anticorticotropics. Food and water consumption were significantly decreased (P< 0.05) with the infusion of BM in both SCWL and broiler cockerels. Food intake was not affected with the infusion of aCRF in SCWL or broilers cockerels. However, water consumption was increased when birds were given ICV injections of aCRF. When birds were pretreated with aCRF, the anorexigenic and adipsic effects of BM were attenuated. It was concluded that BM elicits its effects on feeding through the release of CRF. These results also demonstrate that the aphagic effects of BM could be blocked with the pretreatment of anticorticotropics. / Master of Science

Objective: To investigate differences in dietary intake variables and anthropometric measurements in healthy young adult women of healthy body mass index (BMI) with high and low scores of cognitive eating restraint (CER), disinhibition (DI), and hunger. Design: Cross-sectional study in which the Eating Inventory was completed along with the Block Food Frequency Questionnaire and anthropometric measurements using standard procedures and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, respectively. Participants: 65 healthy young adult women. Setting: This research was conducted in the Bone Laboratory on the campus of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia. Statistical analyses: Independent t-tests, Pearson correlation coefficient analyses, and general linear regression models. Results: Women with high CER scores (n=32; mean±SD CER score=13.1±2.4) consumed more fruits per day (2.4±0.9 svg/d) compared to women with low CER scores (n=33; CER score=4.5±3.0; fruits=1.8±1.1 svg/d; p<0.05). Women with high hunger scores (n=35; hunger score=7.5±2.2) consumed less fruits per day (1.8±0.9 svg/d) compared to women with low hunger scores (n=30; hunger score=3.0±1.1; fruits=2.4±1.1 svg/d; p<0.05). Women with high compared to low CER scores had higher body weight (p<0.05), BMI (p<0.05), fat mass (p<0.05), and body fat percentage (p<0.05), while women with high (n=31; DI score=7.6±2.5) compared to low (n=34; DI score=2.9±1.0) DI scores were taller (p<0.05). Hunger predicted estimated daily dietary intakes of total energy (p<0.05), protein (p<0.01), and fat (p<0.01), while CER (p<0.05) and DI (p<0.05) predicted estimated daily dietary fruit intake. Conclusion: In healthy young adult women, eating characteristics can distinguish between some dietary intake patterns and anthropometric measurements. Hunger is a predictor of estimated energy, protein, and fat intake in these women. / Master of Science

Prolactin-releasing peptide (PrRP) is an endogenous hypothalamic neuropeptide that when exogenously injected increases food intake in chickens, but decreases it in rodents and goldfish. We designed three sets of experiments to elucidate the mechanisms of PrRP's orexigenic effect in chicks. In experiment one, food and water intake were evaluated in chicks after receiving intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of the vehicle, 0.75, 3, 12, 47 or 188 pmol PrRP. The administration of 12 and 47 pmol PrRP increased food intake for up to 120 min after injection, and 188 pmol increased it for up to 180 min. The lowest effective dose was 3 pmol, which increased food intake for up to 60 min after injection. Water intake was not affected. To investigate the molecular mechanisms, c-Fos immunohistochemistry was performed and mRNA expression of some appetite-associated neurotransmitters was measured in chicks that received either vehicle or 188 pmol of PrRP. The rostral paraventricular nucleus (PVN) was activated which coincided with increased neuropeptide Y (NPY) mRNA expression in the whole hypothalamus. In experiment two, food and water intake were evaluated in chicks fed a high carbohydrate (HC), high fat (HF) or high protein (HP) diet after ICV injection of vehicle, 3 or 188 pmol PrRP. Chicks fed the HP diet increased food intake at a lower dose than chicks fed HF and HP diets after ICV PrRP injection. In addition, ICV injection of vehicle, 3 and 188 pmol PrRP were performed in chicks fed all three diets, and ICV PrRP injection induced preferential intake of the HP diet over HC and HF diets. The expression of some appetite-associated neuropeptides in the hypothalamus was also measured in chicks fed the HC, HF or HP diet after ICV injection of vehicle or 188 pmol PrRP. There was a diet effect on mRNA abundance of all appetite-associated genes measured (P < 0.05), with greater expression in chicks fed the HF or HP than HC diet. While neuropeptide Y (NPY) mRNA abundance was similar between vehicle and PrRP-injected chicks that consumed HP or HF diets, expression was greater (P < 0.05) in PrRP- than vehicle-injected chicks that consumed the HC. In experiment three, the orexigenic effect of PrRP was tested in chicks selected for low (LWS) and high (HWS) body weight after central administration of vehicle, 24, 94 and 375 pmol PrRP. The LWS chicks had a lower threshold and higher magnitude of food intake increase in response to PrRP injection. Results demonstrate that PrRP is a potent orexigenic factor in chickens and that effects are likely mediated through the hypothalamus. The orexigenic effect of PrRP was influenced by dietary macronutrient composition, and diet in turn influenced the food intake response to PrRP. These results may contribute to a novel understanding of appetite regulation. / Master of Science

Feeding behavior is a complex trait that is regulated by various hypothalamic neuropeptides and neuronal populations (nuclei). Understanding the physiological regulation of food intake is important for improving nutrient utilization efficiency in agricultural species and for understanding and treating eating disorders. Knowledge about appetite in birds has agricultural and biomedical relevance and provides evolutionary perspective. I thus investigated hypothalamic molecular mechanisms associated with appetite in broilers, layers, chicken lines selected for low (LWS) or high (HWS) body weight, and Japanese quail, which provide a unique perspective to understanding appetite. Broiler-type chicks have been genetically selected for rapid growth and consume much more feed than do layer-type chicks which have been selected for egg production. Long-term selection has caused the LWS chicks to have different severities of anorexia while the HWS chicks become obese, thus making these lines a valuable model for metabolic disorders. Lastly, the Japanese quail have not undergone as extensive artificial selection as the chicken, thus this model may provide insights on how human intervention has changed the mechanisms that regulate feeding behavior in birds. This research involved applying a variety of different treatments including fasting and refeeding, diets differing in macronutrient composition, and/or central administration of neuropeptide Y, xenopsin, neuropeptide K, oxytocin, mesotocin, gonadotropin-inhibitory hormone, and prolactin-releasing peptide, after which I measured feeding behavior and various aspects of hypothalamic physiology. I measured nuclei activation in hypothalamic appetite-associated regions including the lateral hypothalamus, paraventricular nucleus, ventromedial hypothalamus, dorsomedial nucleus, and arcuate nucleus and I measured gene expression of various appetite-associated factors in the whole hypothalamus and individual nuclei. These data provided information about the regions of the brain involved in mediating effects on appetite and the molecular pathways involved in the effect on appetite. There were differences in dose threshold sensitivity to various injected factors in the different stocks, differential responses to fasting and refeeding, and differences in nuclei and genes that were activated in response to the various treatments. These data provide valuable insights on the molecular mechanisms that are associated with the short-term regulation of feeding behavior and pathways that may be genetically stock-dependent. / PHD

When students leave home for college, many desire a sense of belonging. One way for students to cultivate this sense of belonging is by participating in formal and informal peer groups (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). Of all peer groups, Greek-lettered organizations, when serving as an effective peer group, have the most impact on its members (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). As Greek-lettered organizations evolved, pledge processes were created as a means of promoting group values and continuing traditions (Nuwer, 1999). However, this pledge process led to accidents and deaths (Kimbrough, 2003; Nuwer; 1999; Ruffins, 1999). As a result, Black Greek-lettered organizations (BGLOs) replaced their pledge process with a membership intake process (Kimbrough, 1997, 2003; Ruffins, 1999). Despite the end of pledging, BGLO members instituted 'underground pledging,' unsanctioned events that occurred before, during, and/or after the membership intake process as a way to continue the pledge process (Kimbrough, 2003). As a result, students still perceive the pledge process as an instrumental part of the Black Greek experience and continue to participate in unsanctioned pledge activities that lead to injuries and deaths (Geraghty, 1997; Jones, 2000; Morgan, 1998; Rodriguez, 1995; Ruffins, 1997; 2001). Very little research has been conducted on BGLOs. As such, it would seem that research is needed on how members experience and view the intake process. The present study attempted to address this gap by examining the activities that were associated with the membership intake process, as well as current undergraduate members' perceptions of the pledge and membership intake processes. / Master of Arts