"It is an accepted norm of international law that sitting heads of state have immunity from criminal prosecutions. A head of state is normally entitled to immunity from prosecution anywhere, even after he or she is no longer the head of state. However, in recent years we have witnessed the dramatic shift from this customary international law principle where some jurisdictions have been arresting, or threatening to arrest, former and sitting heads of state in order to institute criminal prosecutions against them. There is, however, no uniformity in the application of this action. Those jurisdictions that determine who is to be arrested or prosecuted are so selective that not all those alleged to have committed these crimes are arrested or prosecuted. On the other hand, existing jurisprudence on this subject is not firm in its application. This problem, therefore, calls for harmonisation of the application of the principle of immunity for heads of state in order to make international law reflect the real consent of states. ... The study is divided into four chapters. Chapter one addresses the background on which the study is premised, outlines the statement of the problem, objectives and their significance and the literature review. Chapter two discusses the principle of immunity as developed by prominent international lawyers, courts decisions and other generally applied principles in international law. Chapter three takes the practical application of the principle of head of state immunity against criminal prosecution in interantional law. This involves an examination of the application of the principle from selected national jurisdictions and by the International Court of Justice. Chapter four concludes the discussion and provides for necessary recommendations on the way forward." -- Introduction. / Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2004. / Prepared under the supervision of Dr. Henry Onoria at the Faculty of Law, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda / http://www.chr.up.ac.za/academic_pro/llm1/dissertations.html / Centre for Human Rights / LLM

Du fait des particularismes inhérents à l’ordre juridique international, les contours et le contenu de la justice internationale diffèrent de ceux de la justice interne. Ils répondent à des forces directrices variables qui déterminent la conception même des juridictions internationales et de la justice qu’elles sont mandatées de rendre. Ces forces sont en constante évolution, de concert avec la transformation permanente de l’ordre juridique international. Le phénomène juridictionnel international est ainsi parcouru par plusieurs dynamiques. Au travers de l’étude du cas de la Cour pénale internationale, institution internationale clivante, l’ambition essentielle de cette étude est double. D’une part, il s’agit de démontrer la grande diversité de fonctions judiciaires pénales internationales, dont l’existence même nourrit de sérieux désaccords, tant au sein de la doctrine qu’auprès du personnel de la Cour et des conseillers juridiques des États. Il est donc nécessaire de partir à la recherche et d’examiner les éléments par lesquels la Cour exerce ses fonctions judiciaires afin de répondre au besoin de déterminer, de critiquer et d’ordonner les fonctions judiciaires pénales internationales. La thèse prend position sur chacune d’entre elles. D’autre part, l’analyse vise à exposer l’existence d’une métamorphose de la justice pénale internationale. Il faut pour cela mettre en lumière les dynamiques d’extension et de développement des fonctions judiciaires pénales internationales et, ainsi, lever le voile sur une dynamique plus générale d’enrichissement de la justice internationale. / The progressive legalization of the international society has generated a similar fundamental issue: the implementation of the international law by international courts and tribunals. A slow and relentless judicialisation of international relations has been observed, to the point that there are different providers of the same international judicial function, competent on a large majority of areas of international law.Because of peculiarities inherent to the international legal order, the outlines and content of international justice are different from those of the internal justice. They respond to varying driving forces which determine the conception of international courts and the notion of justice that they are mandated to render. These forces are constantly changing, along with the ongoing transformation of the international legal order. Indeed, the international judicial phenomenon is subject to several dynamics. Through the case study of the International Criminal Court, the essential aim of this study is twofold. First, it is to demonstrate the great diversification of international criminal judicial functions. Some of them crystallize serious disagreements, within the doctrine as to the staff of the Court and Legal Advisors to States. It is therefore necessary to research and examine the elements by which the Court exercises its various judicial functions. The thesis takes a position on each of them. On the other hand, the analysis aims to expose the existence of a metamorphosis of international criminal justice. This requires highlighting two dynamics: the expansion and the development of the international criminal judicial function, and thus unveiling a general dynamic of enrichment of international justice.

The purpose of this thesis is to determine the meaning of the necessary prerequisite attack in the international core crime crimes against humanity. Based on this, the thesis also aims to determine how a Swedish court should interpret the necessary prerequisite attack. Lastly, the thesis aims to assess the necessary prerequisite attack from an external gender perspective. Cases from the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, and the International Criminal Court were analysed to fulfill this purpose. Two methods are applied: the doctrinal study and the gender perspective. Three incidents from the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine have been used to exemplify and discuss some of the theoretical aspects of this thesis. These are the extensive sexual violence against women, the mass executions of men in Bucha, and the forced deportation and illegal adoptions of Ukrainian children. The thesis shows that the necessary prerequisite attack consists of several elements, which all have to be present for the necessary prerequisite to be considered fulfilled. There must be an attack, the attack must be widespread or systematic, the attack must be directed against a civilian population and the perpetrator’s acts must constitute part of an attack that they are aware of and knowingly participates in. An attack no longer needs to occur within the context of an armed conflict or with discriminatory intent, except for the specific act of persecution. An element that appears required for a course of events to constitute an attack is that of a policy, though there is a lack of consensus on this matter. The international views of the necessary prerequisite attack differs, especially regarding the policy element, and the next question that has to be answered is therefore how a Swedish court should interpret the necessary prerequisite attack. Which case law or legal sources should they use, and why? The thesis argues that the Swedish International Crimes Act should be used first, and the Swedish preparatory work has clear indications to follow the International Criminal Courts case law. This means that it is likely that a Swedish court would apply the policy element. The thesis ends with an analysis of the necessary prerequisite attack and acts of sexual violence from a gender perspective. The thesis shows that there has been a positive development in the last 30 years in how acts of sexual violence are viewed and handled within the field of international criminal law.

1 When sexual violence is weaponised: CRSV as a violation of international criminal law Abstract The aim of this thesis is to describe the legal regime of sexual violence in armed conflicts, with a special focus on international criminal law provisions. This work is divided into six parts that focus especially on legal provisions of the statutes of the International Criminal Tribunals for Former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda as well as on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court and decisions of those international judicial bodies in cases involving sexual violence. The first part introduces to the reader basic terms and concepts that will follow them throughout this work. Additionally, a small subpart is dedicated to the Women, Peace and Security agenda introduced by the UN Security Council Resolution 1325 that, among other themes, highlights the necessity of strengthened international focus and cooperation in fighting sexual violence in armed conflicts. The second part deals mainly with the historical context of the adoption of the prohibition of sexual violence in armed conflicts and describe the development in approach of international law towards this crime, from general prohibitions of rape to specific enumeration of norms prohibiting sexual violence in...

The involvement of multinational corporations, international traders, transporters, processors, and retailers has a crucial significance in high-risk contexts there is a wide range of commercial activities that can make economic actors criminally responsible for gross violations of international humanitarian law and human rights: this includes the sale of weaponry, pillaging or commercial transactions unrelated to war. Allowing companies and their managers to shield themselves is harmful to the development of international law. Despite the fact that international criminal law does not foresee the criminal responsibility of legal entities, international criminal law does envisage the criminal responsibility of individuals, including those in charge of large-scale commercial activities. This thesis examines the manner in which international law regulates the complicity of business executives (in their capacity as company directors/officials) managing firms within the context of an armed conflict. Complicity is a subset of culpability that connects an accomplice to a primary actor's crime. This thesis examines the framework for evaluating complicity standards and suggests alternatives to normative prosecution of company leaders. I demonstrate that international criminal law regulates individual involvement in a comprehensive manner, employing the theories of incitement and aiding and abetting to inculpate complicit actors in international crimes, and these theories are differentiated by the extent of involvement in an unlawful complicitous activity, a threshold of knowledge of the fault needed of the accomplice, and a connection requirement between the accomplice's activities and the principal’s wrong. Similarly, it investigates the evolution of the concept of complicity in customary criminal law via tribunals and hybrid courts. It examines the evolution of complicity in light of social media, war sponsorship, and profit-motivated support provided to governments

This dissertation in four essays critically examines the emergence of international criminal courts: their international political underpinnings, context, and the impact of their political production in relation to liberal legalism, liberal political theory, and history. The essays conceive of international criminal legal bodies both as political projects at their inception and as institutions that deny their own political provenance. The work is primarily one of political theory at the intersection of history, international relations, international criminal law, and the politics of memory. The first essay questions Nuremberg's legacy on the United States' exceptionalist view of international law and its deviant practice, while the second essay explores the relationship between exploding inequality and the triumph of the human rights movement as well as the costs of international prosecutions to the detriment of transformative politics. The third essay explores the relationship between history and international criminal courts, as well as the limits of their engagement, while the fourth examines the idea of legalism - rule following as a moral ethos - in the context of real political trials.

Submitted by JOSIANE SANTOS DE OLIVEIRA (josianeso) on 2018-12-19T15:23:47Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Cláudio Rogério Sousa Lira_.pdf: 4283156 bytes, checksum: ab9bbde48cd33fa54f086bcfae5f40a8 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-12-19T15:23:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Cláudio Rogério Sousa Lira_.pdf: 4283156 bytes, checksum: ab9bbde48cd33fa54f086bcfae5f40a8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-06-22 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O tema desta pesquisa é terrorismo. Esse fenômeno, embora não seja recente, se notabilizou com os ataques de 11 de setembro de 2001, nos Estados Unidos da América. Com esse marco, se inaugurou uma nova ordem de instabilidade com o desencadeamento de sucessivos ataques em diversas partes do mundo, fazendo do terrorismo um assunto da pauta permanente na Comunidade Internacional. Em razão dos ataques, advém a reação ao terrorismo, promovida pelos Estados, de forma isolada, em coalizão ou com o apoio de órgãos internacionais. Na estratégia antiterrorismo, os recursos mais comuns empregados são a Guerra e o Direito, com prioridade para as campanhas bélicas. Ocorre que esse modo de agir tem causado graves violações aos direitos humanos e às garantias fundamentais conquistadas pela civilização ao longo da história. Surge, então, o desafio da Comunidade Internacional para regulamentar uma maneira legítima e mais justa para reagir aos objetivos do terrorismo. É por isso que há um natural e necessário interesse da comunidade científica em relação ao terrorismo. Nesse interesse inclui-se esta tese, somando-se aos esforços epistêmicos para analisar a situação do terrorismo, tanto no aspecto de formação e de operação dos grupos terroristas como em relação aos meios de reação escolhidos pelos Estados atacados. Para isso, investiga-se o terrorismo como um fato social que transborda seus efeitos para a área jurídica, especialmente, para a esfera do Direito Penal. Inicialmente, a tese buscará esclarecer o cenário atual sobre o terrorismo, incluindo as dificuldades jurídicas e políticas de conceituá-lo e as formas de operação dos grupos terroristas. Nesse aspecto, o estudo pretende esclarecer o processo de recrutamento, treinamento e de emprego de pessoas aos ideais terroristas, formados sob a ótica de um fundamentalismo extremo da religião islâmica. Em seguida, o estudo analisará os elementos que orientam a Comunidade Internacional na estratégia da luta global contra o terrorismo. Uma vez feita essa incursão, ingressa-se no núcleo central da tese, para analisar, detalhadamente, o emprego das principais formas de reação ao terrorismo: a Guerra e o Direito. Em relação às ações de guerra contra o terrorismo, o estudo apresenta seus argumentos para sustentar que tal meio se revela, quando legítimo, uma resposta injusta, em razão das graves violações de direitos humanos e de garantias fundamentais. Daí porque a tese vai defender uma resposta antiterror pela via do Direito. Todavia, embora seja feita a defesa desse meio de reação ao terror, a investigação demonstrará que ainda não é possível a criminalização do terrorismo como um delito internacional autônomo ou subsidiário a um dos crimes nucleares previstos no Estatuto Penal de Roma. É por isso que, ao final, a tese sustentada é a de que o terrorismo é um crime transnacional, de natureza jurídica de crime de tratado, cujas condutas devem ser objeto da política criminal dos direitos penais domésticos, com o suporte dos instrumentos jurídicos produzidos pelo Direito dos Tratado. / El tema de esta investigación es el terrorismo. Este fenómeno, aunque no sea reciente, se notó con los ataques del 11 de septiembre de 2001, en los Estados Unidos de América. Con ese marco, se inauguró un nuevo orden de inestabilidad con el desencadenamiento de sucesivos ataques en diversas partes del mundo, haciendo del terrorismo un asunto del arancel permanente en la Comunidad Internacional. En razón de los ataques, viene la reacción al terrorismo, promovida por los Estados, de forma aislada, en coalición o con el apoyo de organismos internacionales. En la estrategia antiterrorista, los recursos más comunes empleados son la Guerra y el Derecho, con prioridad para las campañas bélicas. Ocurre que ese modo de actuar ha causado graves violaciones a los derechos humanos y a las garantías fundamentales conquistadas por la civilización a lo largo de la historia. Se plantea, entonces, el desafío de la Comunidad Internacional para reglamentar una manera legítima y más justa para responder a los objetivos del terrorismo. Es por eso que hay un natural y necesario interés de la comunidad científica en relación al terrorismo. En este interés se incluye esta tesis, sumándose a los esfuerzos epistémicos para analizar la situación del terrorismo, tanto en el aspecto de formación y de operación de los grupos terroristas como en relación a los medios de reacción escogidos por los Estados atacados. Para ello, se investiga el terrorismo como un hecho social que desborda sus efectos para el área jurídica, especialmente, para la esfera del Derecho Penal. Inicialmente, la tesis buscará aclarar el escenario actual sobre el terrorismo, incluyendo las dificultades jurídicas y políticas de conceptualizarlo y las formas de operación de los grupos terroristas. En este aspecto, el estudio pretende clarificar el proceso de reclutamiento, entrenamiento y de empleo de personas a los ideales terroristas, formados bajo la óptica de un fundamentalismo extremo de la religión islámica. A continuación, el estudio analizará los elementos que orientan a la Comunidad Internacional en la estrategia de la lucha global contra el terrorismo. Una vez hecha esa incursión, se ingresa en el núcleo central de la tesis, para analizar, detalladamente, el empleo de las principales formas de reacción al terrorismo: la Guerra y el Derecho. En cuanto a las acciones de guerra contra el terrorismo, el estudio presenta sus argumentos para sostener que tal medio se revela, cuando legítimo, una respuesta injusta, en razón de las graves violaciones de derechos humanos y de garantías fundamentales. De ahí que la tesis va a defender una respuesta anti terror por la vía del Derecho. Sin embargo, aunque se haga la defensa de ese medio de reacción al terror, la investigación demostrará que aún no es posible la criminalización del terrorismo como un delito internacional autónomo o subsidiario a uno de los crímenes nucleares previstos en el Estatuto Penal de Roma. Por eso, al final, la tesis sostenida es que el terrorismo es un crimen transnacional, de naturaleza jurídica de crimen de tratado, cuyas conductas deben ser objeto de la política criminal de los derechos penales domésticos, con el soporte de los instrumentos jurídicos producidos por el Derecho de los Tratado.

Since 1945, there has been a proliferation of armed groups in conflict theatres across the globe. Although these groups exist outside of the regular forces of States, they are in most instances supported and controlled by States. Despite this, the complicit support of States in the commission of international crimes by armed groups is not recognised under international law and the tests of control through which the conduct of individuals could be attributed to States are almost impossible to meet. This allows States to maintain compelling roles in international crimes committed by armed groups with impunity. Despite this, the role played by States in modern international conflict has received only intermittent attention in the literature. This thesis seeks to address this disparity by addressing the critical role of State support of armed groups in the commission of international crimes by challenging the existing tests of attribution of conduct to States under the present rules of international responsibility. Therefore this thesis asks whether there can be variation to the current tests for attribution of conduct of individuals who are members of non-State armed groups to States which provide support to them, by approaching the interpretation of "control" in a purposive, less literal manner. It argues this by analysing the limitations of the current law through selected case studies. It further examines alternative approaches in the fields of international human rights law and international criminal law, again through selected case studies with a view to determining whether they can assist in crafting more purposive approaches towards the determination of State control over armed groups. This will augment the current corpus of literature by suggesting improvements that can, hopefully, pass into the lex lata and stymie continued State impunity in this area.

[pt] O trabalho consiste na análise do processo de internacionalização dos Direitos Humanos com base no Direito Internacional Penal. Partindo de abordagens interdisciplinares na criação do Tribunal Penal Internacional, é feita uma leitura jurídico-penal do Estatuto de Roma a partir da aproximação dos conceitos oriundos do Common Law e do Civil Law em busca de um maior aprimoramento na construção de uma Parte Geral do Direito Internacional Penal. Assim, pretende-se contribuir para uma maior preocupação no tocante à responsabilização penal no plano internacional, sempre com o foco voltado para o incremento da proteção internacional dos Direitos Humanos. / [en] The work analyses the process of internationalization of the Human Rights based upon International criminal law. Beginning with an interdisciplinary approach on the creation of the International Criminal Court, the Roman Statute is analyzed through a criminal law reading, that acknowledges an approach between Common Law and Civil Law traditional concepts. Therefore, the work seeks to contribute to an improvement on criminal law enforcement on the international level, always focusing on assuring the international protection of the Human Rights.

International Criminal Law as an Instrument of Environmental Protection The aim of this thesis is to explore the potential of the international criminal law as an instrument for solving global environmental problems, which would enable better implementation of international environmental legal norms. The first chapter provides an outline of core ideas and concepts, which originate from the understanding of the international criminal law as an ultima ratio instrument for safeguarding the international security and the health of humankind, i.e. the identical values that have been seriously threatened by the global environmental crisis at the beginning of the 21st century. The second chapter elaborates on the international environmental protection in times of peace, with emphasis on the non-existence of effective responsibility mechanisms, which would oblige states and private entities to adhere to general international environmental norms. For the most severe cases of failure to adhere to said norms, the future use of the international criminal law is being proposed. The third chapter comments on the international protection of the environment at times of war and armed conflicts, which is, contrary to times of peace, at least partly embedded in the existing norms of the international criminal law;...