This research paper aims to examine how international franchising can be a development tool for SMEs, an initiation tool for start-ups, and a strategic tool for the government and private sector in the tourism industry of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). The tourism industry is a relatively new phenomenon in KSA, recognized only after the inception of the Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities (SCTA) in 2000. Since then, SCTA made great efforts and reforms to improve the economic, social, and cultural environment of the sector. However, the tourism in KSA still faces an array of obstacles, mainly related to the prevailing inadequacies of human capital and only a modest supply of services catering specifically for tourist, both in terms of quantity and quality. Therefore, the initiation of tourism industry in KSA necessitates learning from countries that have prior and intensive experience in tourism. International franchising represents a possible means of eliminating a large number of barriers preventing or dissuading people from doing business in general and in the tourism industry in particular, especially through its ability to make up for the lack of business experience and knowledge on the side of ‘newcomers’ in this industry. More specifically, this study aims to research the possibility of adopting international franchising with its proven business models that meet the international standards by the tourism industry in KSA as a systematic solution to its most persisting weaknesses. Three phases of sequential mixed methods were used to examine the potential impact of international franchising on developing tourism investment in KSA. Phase one involved qualitative research through preliminary interviews with officials and experts in the franchising and tourism sectors, to investigate the current situation of the research topic and identify the barriers and drivers of both sectors. Phase two involved quantitative research through follow up to the two questionnaires with owners/managers of franchises (n=104) and tourism businesses (n=475) to validate the initial exploration, and make an intersection between international franchising and tourism, through common questions between the questionnaires. This lead to further exploration in phase three, which examined the actual experience of international franchising in four case studies, mostly in tourism, who had converted from independent businesses to franchisees of international brands. The findings indicate that international franchising can be a development tool for SMEs and an initiation tool for start-ups in the tourism industry. This study provides evidence that international franchising can have a great impact on enhancing the intellectual capital of local businesses, including human capital, relational capital and organizational capital, as well as financial performance. The traditional tourism activities (accommodation, restaurants, cafes and travel agencies) have high potential for successful franchising in KSA. Due to the unpopularity of franchising in some activities, uncertainty appears in non-traditional tourism activities such as entertainment, resorts, training institutes, tourism guidance and tour organisers, and motorway services. The diffusion of international franchising, along with its potential impact on development, is conditional on the issuance of an independent franchise law and the lifting of some barriers related to administration, financial support and marketing in the tourism sector.

This deductive-hypothetico research addressed a literature void on the research problem: Impact of Shifts in Strategic Othodoxy on International Enterprise Performance. This study hypothesised: H11: Strategic orientation correlates with superior international performance; H12: Global strategy contributes to superior performance internationally; and, H13: Skills in strategy execution lead to superiior performance internationally. Three hundred and nine variables in three hypotheses were tested with data collected from a 'small,' but highly relevant sample. Ninety-two variables were positively correlated while 217 were negative. Due to the large number of variables for each hypothesis, no hypothesis was fully supported or rejected. Eleven models for superior international performance have been scientifically developed from data analyses. Models are designed to aid robust international franchising stategy development by strategists at varying continuum of international expertise. Significant serendipitous findings include: nullification of conventional wisdom that the larger the sample size, the higher the reliability the research findings; lateral instead of dedicated strategies can be more effective, in this instance, marketing strategy had no positive correlation with dependent marketing variables but correlated positively with financial variables; and, cost of Australian international franchising operations was determined. A cross sectional research in 2007 will degrade with passage of time. Environmental dynamics will affect its relevance. This study concerns Australian international franchisors, hence generalizability outside this dimension may not be appropriate. Contribution of this research to knowledge is significant: outcomes filled a literature void in relation to the research problem; findings of positively correlated variables help franchising strategists develop strategies that achieve superior performance, whereas negatively correlated variables help avoid costly mistakes; and, the research refuted previous postulations that fundamentals of western management were flawed. Culminating from this research, a window of opportunities has been created for further research in various areas such as varying types or research; methodologies; sectoral and geographical variations; and changes in research scope and width.

This deductive-hypothetico research addressed a literature void on the research problem: Impact of Shifts in Strategic Othodoxy on International Enterprise Performance. This study hypothesised: H11: Strategic orientation correlates with superior international performance; H12: Global strategy contributes to superior performance internationally; and, H13: Skills in strategy execution lead to superiior performance internationally. Three hundred and nine variables in three hypotheses were tested with data collected from a 'small,' but highly relevant sample. Ninety-two variables were positively correlated while 217 were negative. Due to the large number of variables for each hypothesis, no hypothesis was fully supported or rejected. Eleven models for superior international performance have been scientifically developed from data analyses. Models are designed to aid robust international franchising stategy development by strategists at varying continuum of international expertise. Significant serendipitous findings include: nullification of conventional wisdom that the larger the sample size, the higher the reliability the research findings; lateral instead of dedicated strategies can be more effective, in this instance, marketing strategy had no positive correlation with dependent marketing variables but correlated positively with financial variables; and, cost of Australian international franchising operations was determined. A cross sectional research in 2007 will degrade with passage of time. Environmental dynamics will affect its relevance. This study concerns Australian international franchisors, hence generalizability outside this dimension may not be appropriate. Contribution of this research to knowledge is significant: outcomes filled a literature void in relation to the research problem; findings of positively correlated variables help franchising strategists develop strategies that achieve superior performance, whereas negatively correlated variables help avoid costly mistakes; and, the research refuted previous postulations that fundamentals of western management were flawed. Culminating from this research, a window of opportunities has been created for further research in various areas such as varying types or research; methodologies; sectoral and geographical variations; and changes in research scope and width.

「連鎖經營」近年來在台灣已尉為風潮，而「加盟連鎖」究竟是萬靈丹還 是毒藥，亦成為實務界爭議的焦點與學術界探討的議題，然而過去的國內 外研究大多僅探討公司目標、公司特性、地點資源、管理因素及產業特性 等構面對連鎖體系擴張策略的個別影響，而忽略了策略制定時所需的整合 性考量。本研究之貢獻在於探討上述構面對擴張策略選擇之整合性影響， 並比較國內外連鎖體系於擴張策略選擇上的異同，及探究連鎖店的立地條 件對該店的經營形態的影響，同時對資源稀少理論、管理效率理論及連鎖 生命週期理論作一驗証。本研究之發現如下：ぇ國內「加盟連鎖」的發展 ，有填鴨式成長之傾向。え外商連鎖體系進入台灣，普遍以透過一台灣代 理商、授權、技術合作、直接投資或合資五種方式，而在擴張策略的選擇 上，與外商有關的連鎖體系，偏好採完全直營的擴張策略，而本國連鎖體 系則傾向開放加盟。ぉ當連鎖體系總公司以提高公司獲利率為首要目標時 ，將傾向於採直營的擴張策略；當以提高市場佔有率為第一目標時，則偏 好採加盟的擴張方式。お當連鎖體系總公司將公司特性、地點資源、管理 因素及產業特性等構面作一整合性考量時，對擴張策略的選擇最具影響的 決定性因素為：規模、成長率、加盟者的掌握及know-how的移轉。か影響 連鎖體系總公司採取「完全直營」或「完全加盟」策略的主要因素為「規 模」及「單店投入成本」。が就單一連鎖店的立地條件而言，當該連鎖店 的營業年數愈長，該區域內的競爭者愈多，該連鎖店的顧客流量愈大、店 面的月租金愈高時，則該店成為直營店的機率將愈高。き不論何種連鎖體 系，「開放加盟」皆是未來主要的擴張方式。就理論的角度觀之，本研究 完全支持管理效率理論，部分支持資源稀少理論，而國內連鎖發展與連鎖 生命週期的漸進式發展亦不盡相同，因此，連鎖總公司應考量國內連鎖發 展狀況，及本研究所提之影響因素，以決定採取直營或加盟的擴張策略。

This research develops and tests a model of the service unit ownership and control patterns used by international service companies. The main purpose of this study is to investigate trivariate causal relationships among environmental factors, organizational structure, and perceived performance in the internationalization process of service firms. A service firm operating in foreign soil has a choice of three general entry mode strategies offering different degrees of ownership and control of its remote operating units located in foreign countries -- full ownership arrangement, joint venture arrangement, and franchising arrangement. The entry mode strategies chosen depend on the factors relating to internal environment of a specific firm, industry related factors in which the firm operates, and external environment of the operating units at national context. This study identifies these factors, investigates how they affect the firm's choice of entry modes, and finally examines the impact of entry mode on firm's performance. The overall model has been explained by contingency theory that conceptualizes optimal level of ownership and control mode as a response by the firm to the interplay of environmental factors and as a determinant of firm's performance. To this core can be added complementary theories which are borrowed from agency theory, transaction cost theory, and resource dependence theory. These theories explain the linkages between market entry mode and each type of environmental factors. In order to empirically test the hypotheses, data were collected from hospitality firms regarding the ownership structure of subsidiaries located in foreign countries. As a whole, the conceptual model developed in the study received strong support from the empirical study. This study found a positive impact of contingency fit on performance and so support contingency theory in which some combinations of the environmental dimensions and organizational structure will lead to better organizational performance. Another finding of this study indicates that the increased level of ownership and control will result in enhancing the level of perceived performance. It should be noted that contingency model-based mode choice would provide managers with the optimal performance because there is not one best performing mode choice in volatile international market. Next, the relationship of market environment with organizational structure was examined through three different perspectives. Market environment was investigated at firm, industry, and national context, which includes five factors -- monitoring uncertainty, asset specificity, cultural distance, political uncertainty, and economic uncertainty. The model is suggestive of a picture in which five environmental factors vie for affecting the choice of market entry modes. All five environmental factors were found to be significantly related to firms' organizational structure. Among five environmental factors, cultural uncertainty has the largest effect on the choice of entry mode followed by monitoring uncertainty, political uncertainty, asset specificity, and economic uncertainty. One of the important implications of this research is the inclusion of franchising as an actual management strategy and competitive business practice that is related to international ownership and control strategy. Higher degrees of uncertainty associated with the foreign market encourage external dependence of the venture, in which the operation depends more heavily on local relationships. Franchising substitutes the loss of ownership by an increase of external relationships and it takes without losing control on retail operation. Resource exploitation depends on the local market for either inputs or outputs for better performance. Understanding the fit between the each set of contingent variables and the elements of ownership and control strategy will allow marketers to determine when franchising is the suitable mode of operation in global markets. Collectively, these results suggest that the choice of an organizational form for international service firms involves a complex balance of firm, industry, and country level factors. Managers can maximize performance by aligning entry mode strategy with external contextual circumstances as well as internal resources. Managers may also be able to make better mode choice decisions using the theory-driven criteria examined in this study, increasing their chances for financial and non-financial success. / Ph. D.

[pt] Quando se trata de internacionalizar as marcas brasileiras, com frequência a modalidade de franquia é utilizada. Segundo a Associação Brasileira de Franquia (ABF), o país ocupava, em 2016, o sexto lugar no ranking mundial em relação ao número de franquias. A internacionalização de franquias é eficaz por meio de transferência de ativos intangíveis, tais como: o know how do franqueador, o reconhecimento da marca e a questão de existir um sistema de negócios pronto para o franqueado, sem requerer um investimento significativo do dono da marca para executar tal expansão. Por se tratar de uma sociedade em que as partes não possuem uma igualdade no poder decisório, esse tipo de sistema requer cooperação. O fluxo de informação só se concretiza quando há uma parceria, rede de relacionamento e alinhamento de estratégias e interesses. A partir dessa suposição, o estudo tem como objetivo investigar o papel do relacionamento entre franqueadores e franqueados no processo de internacionalização. Para tal, foi aplicada a metodologia de estudos de casos e três empresas franqueadoras internacionalizadas foram pesquisadas. Posteriormente, as informações foram comparadas com os modelos de Uppsala (1977 e 2009), usando como suporte a literatura de franquia. Identificou-se que tais empresas utilizam seus conhecimentos e suas redes para expandir seus negócios e, frequentemente, absorver informações de parceiros locais para melhorar o conhecimento de mercado e adaptar seus produtos ou serviços. O estudo contribui para entender melhor como o aspecto relacional favorece uma internacionalização bem-sucedida. / [en] When it comes to internationalizing Brazilian brands, the franchise mode is often used. According to the Brazilian Franchise Association (ABF), in 2016, the country was the sixth on the world ranking regarding the number of franchises. The internationalization of franchises is effective through the transfer of intangible assets, such as the franchisor s expertise, brand identification and a business system ready for the franchisee, which does not require a significant investment from the brand owner to implement an expansion. This is a partnership in which the partners do not have equal decision-power; therefore, this kind of system requires cooperation. The exchange of information is only achieved when there is a partnership, a network of relationship and an alignment of strategy and interests. Departing from this assumption, this study aimed to investigate the role of relationships between franchisors and franchisees in the internationalization process. To that end, the methodology of case studies was applied and three franchising firms that internationalized were investigated. Subsequently, the data was compared to the Uppsala models (1977 e 2009) using the franchise literature as an additional theoretical support. The study identified that such companies use their knowledge and their networks to expand their business and often to absorb information from local partners in order to improve market knowledge and adapt their products or services. This study helps to better understand how the relational aspect contributes to a successful internationalization.

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal. / Le devoir de coopération s'affirme comme un nouveau concept destiné à faciliter le bon usage des accords contractuels. En élargissant les principes de bonne foi ou d'intérêt commun, il jouxte la notion d'affectio societatis du droit des sociétés. Ce concept s'est particulièrement développé pour appuyer la mondialisation des échanges économiques aussi bien comme guide des parties contractantes dans la bonne administration de leurs relations que comme mode d'interprétation ou de règlement des différends. Le devoir de coopération est un souffle nouveau destiné à rendre implicite une attitude coopérative et non plus antagoniste des parties. Le domaine de.la franchise internationale est une , bonne illustration de ce nouveau concept: les parties au contrat de franchise internationale doivent s'adapter au marché local par exemple, ce qui nécessite à l'évidence une attitude entrepreneuriale coopérative. Le devoir de coopération peut être conçu comme une notion clef de la bonne exécution contractuelle. Il est en tout cas déjà consacré comme tel en droit contractuel international où il agit comme source de droit supplétive lorsque la lettre du contrat s'avère insuffisante. / The duty to cooperate is emerging as a new legal concept intended to facilitate the performance of contractual agreements. By broadening the principles of good faith or common interest, the notion of cooperation could be seen as analogical to the notion of affectio societatis in the right of societies? This notion has developed in particular to support the globalization of economic exchanges, not only as a guide for contracting parties in the proper administration of their relationship, but also as a mode of interpretation or for dispute resolution. The duty to cooperate is an innovative notion designed to create an implicit cooperative, no longer antagonistic , attitude among the parties. This is could be best demonstrated by examining its development in the field of international franchising : for example, the parties to an international franchising agreement must adjust their business plan to the local market and culture, which obviously necessitates a cooperative entrepreneurial attitude. The dut y to cooperate should be understood as a key element in the proper performance of contractual agreements. It has already been acknowledged as such normative compone nt in international contractual law where it serves as a suppletive law in those cases where the letter of the contract is insufficient.

Le devoir de coopération s'affirme comme un nouveau concept destiné à faciliter le bon usage des accords contractuels. En élargissant les principes de bonne foi ou d'intérêt commun, il jouxte la notion d'affectio societatis du droit des sociétés. Ce concept s'est particulièrement développé pour appuyer la mondialisation des échanges économiques aussi bien comme guide des parties contractantes dans la bonne administration de leurs relations que comme mode d'interprétation ou de règlement des différends. Le devoir de coopération est un souffle nouveau destiné à rendre implicite une attitude coopérative et non plus antagoniste des parties. Le domaine de.la franchise internationale est une , bonne illustration de ce nouveau concept: les parties au contrat de franchise internationale doivent s'adapter au marché local par exemple, ce qui nécessite à l'évidence une attitude entrepreneuriale coopérative. Le devoir de coopération peut être conçu comme une notion clef de la bonne exécution contractuelle. Il est en tout cas déjà consacré comme tel en droit contractuel international où il agit comme source de droit supplétive lorsque la lettre du contrat s'avère insuffisante. / The duty to cooperate is emerging as a new legal concept intended to facilitate the performance of contractual agreements. By broadening the principles of good faith or common interest, the notion of cooperation could be seen as analogical to the notion of affectio societatis in the right of societies? This notion has developed in particular to support the globalization of economic exchanges, not only as a guide for contracting parties in the proper administration of their relationship, but also as a mode of interpretation or for dispute resolution. The duty to cooperate is an innovative notion designed to create an implicit cooperative, no longer antagonistic , attitude among the parties. This is could be best demonstrated by examining its development in the field of international franchising : for example, the parties to an international franchising agreement must adjust their business plan to the local market and culture, which obviously necessitates a cooperative entrepreneurial attitude. The dut y to cooperate should be understood as a key element in the proper performance of contractual agreements. It has already been acknowledged as such normative compone nt in international contractual law where it serves as a suppletive law in those cases where the letter of the contract is insufficient. / Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal