The imidazole ring offers great potential for a variety of applications including gene delivery vectors, ionic liquids, electromechanical actuators, and novel monomers and polymers. The imidazole ring provides a unique building block for these applications due to its thermal stability, aromatic nature, ability to form ionic salts, and ease of functionalization. Free radical polymerization of 1-vinylimidazole (1-VIm) and free radical copolymerizations with methyl methacrylate (MMA) and n-butyl acrylate (nBA) afforded homopolymers and copolymers with tunable solution and thermal properties. Aqueous SEC provided reproducible and reliable molecular weights for poly(1-VIm) in the absence of polymer aggregates. Analysis of the thermal properties revealed ideal random copolymers with MMA and non-ideal copolymers with nBA. Small angle X-ray scattering determined that the spacing between ionic groups remained constant with increased nonionic comonomer incorporation while the spacing between adjacent polymer backbones increased. Functionalization of 1-VIm with varying length alkyl halides and polymerization prepared a series of imidazolium homopolymers. Anion exchange reactions controlled the thermal and solution properties, and the bromide counteranion quantitatively exchanged to tetrafluoroborate (BF4), trifluoromethanesulfonate (TfO), and bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (Tf2N). Thermogravimetric analysis revealed that thermal stability increased with decreased alkyl substituent length and larger counteranion size, and differential scanning calorimetry determined that glass transition temperature (Tg) decreased with increased alkyl substituent length and larger counteranion size. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy determined the ionic conductivities of the imidazolium homopolymers, and analysis using the Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann equation revealed that the activation energy of ion conduction increased as alkyl substituent length increased. Polymer morphology determined using X-ray scattering also influenced the ionic conductivity. As the alkyl substituent length increased, the spacing between adjacent polymer backbones increased, which decreased the ionic conductivity due to the ion-hopping mechanism of ion conduction. Unsuccessful attempts to control the radical polymerization of 1-VIm led to the investigation of 1-(4-vinylbenzyl)imidazole (VBIm), which is a styrenic-based monomer with excellent propagating radical stability. Triblock copolymers incorporating VBIm monomer into a soft random copolymer center block and reinforcing, hard segment outer blocks provided a template for tuning the properties of the ionomer membranes for electroactive devices. Analysis of the morphology and mechanical properties using small angle X-ray scattering and dynamic mechanical analysis determined microphase separation and optimal mechanical properties for electromechanical transducer fabrication. Testing electromechanical transducers revealed superior performance relative to the benchmark Nafion®. Optimization of triblock copolymer design criteria through varying the comonomer ratio of VBIm and nBA in the soft center block, quaternization reactions, and ionic liquid introduction influenced mechanical properties and ionic conductivity. Higher percentages of VBIm and quaternization of VBIm in the random central block increased Tg and ionic conductivity. IL selectively incorporated into the imidazole-containing phases with no leakage observed for ionic systems, reduced the center block Tg, and increased ionic conductivity. Controlling charge density along poly(1-VIm) through well-defined alkylation reactions with 1-bromobutane provided a potential vector for nonviral gene delivery and polyanion binding. Analysis of DNA and heparin binding using gel electrophoresis revealed a decrease in N/P ratio with increased alkylation percentage. Dynamic light scattering indicated an increase in zeta potential with increasing alkylation percentages, and relatively uniform polyplex sizes in aqueous media. The MTT assay developed cytotoxicity profiles with little toxicity prior to 83% alkylation. Finally, the luciferase expression assay revealed inefficient nucleic acid delivery to multiple cell types. Synthesis of poly(1-VIm) vectors with glutathione conjugates provided an avenue for simultaneous therapeutic gene and anti-oxidant delivery in vitro. Cytotoxicity assays of cells pretreated with glutathione-conjugated poly(1-VIm) prior to oxidative stress showed that higher glutathione conjugation levels improved cell viability. / Ph. D.

Blends containing methoxyoligooxyethyleneglycol (MPEGs) (MW 350 and 550) and bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide lithium (LiTFSI) salt were prepared by solution blending process using tetrahydrofuran (THF) as a solvent. The ionic conductivity of the blends of different compositions were determined at four temperatures i.e. 25°C, 40°C, 60°C and 70°C. A maximum ionic conductivity value of 3.9x10-3 S cm-1 at 25°C was obtained for the blends containing MPEG-350 at an ethylene oxide to lithium salt ratio of 1:10. The ionic conductivity increases with increasing temperature and shows that the ion transport is aided by the segmental motion of the MPEG chains. 7Li NMR spectroscopy was used to study the nature and dynamics of the salt clusters in the blends

No description available.

O estudo de propriedades de transporte das fases vítreas do sistema LixTh1-xF4-3x por RMN do 7Li e do 19F mostrou que tanto os ions Li+ quanto F- são condutores. O lítio é móvel para todas as temperaturas estudadas e atua como cátion modificador do retículo, enquanto que o flúor é condutor apenas acima de 373K. Por espectroscopia vibracional ficou evidenciada a variação do número de coordenação do Th (de 8,5 a 9,5) em função da composição. No sistema LixU1-xF4-3x verificou-se que o átomo de urânio assume coordenação 8, independentemente da composição. O paramagnetismo dos vidros de urânio, determinado por medidas magnéticas e de RPE, é devido ao paramagnetismo inerente ao átomo de urânio isolado impedindo o estudo destas amostras por RMN. A determinação da estrutura cristalina da fase Li3ThF7 utilizando difração de raios-X por monocristal mostrou que este material cristaliza-se no grupo espacial P4/ncc do sistema tetragonal; a=6,200(1)&#197, c=12,937(2)&#197, Z=4 moléculas/cela unitária. A estrutura é formada por camadas de poliedros (ThF9) ,com quatro vértices comuns no plano ab. Os átomos de lítio localizam-se entre estas cama das ligando os poliedros [ThF9) ao longo do eixo c. Há uma desordem dos átomos de lítio que ocupam os sítios 8f e 16g na proporção 1:3. O efeito quadrupolar observado por RMN do 7Li na fase cristalina, acima de 333K, pode ser explicado pela troca de íons lítio entre sítios não equivalentes que modulam os gradientes de campo elétrico a que cada núcleo individual esta submetido. Cálculos dos componentes principais do tensor gradiente de campo elétrico, para os diferentes sítios ocupados pelo lítio, indicam a ionocovalência da ligação Th-F e o processo de difusão planar deste íon entre as camadas de poliedros de tório. O processo de difusão planar do lítio na fase cristalina Li3ThF7 comparado ao da amostra vítrea de mesma composição Li0,75Th0,25F1,75, explica o valor ligeiramente inferior da energia de ativação do lítio medido para a amostra cristalina. No cristal há periodicidade das camadas de lítio facilitando a mobilidade o que não acontece no vidro onde o encadeamento dos poliedros é distorcido a curta distância. O estudo cristaloquímico da fase policristalina LiZnF3 exibiu três tipos de estrutura possíveis: coríndon, ilmenita e LiTaO3, cujos grupos espaciais são indistinguíveis por difração de raios-X em policristais. Cálculos de segundo momento teórico comparados ao experimental observado por RMN continua do 19F, permitiram descartar a hipótese estrutural tipo LiTaO3. A desconvolução do espéctro de ressonância do 7Li, evidenciando o mascaramento dos satélites quadrupolares do lítio, possibilitou o cálculo do momento quadrupolar. Este efeito permitiu eliminar a estrutura tipo coríndon e mostrou que este é o primeiro fluoreto sintetizado com estrutura ilmenita. / The 7Li and 19F NMR study of transport properties of the vitreous phases in the system LixTh1-xF4-3x shows that both Li+ and F- are ionic carriers. In all the temperature range studied lithium cations are mobile and behave as a network modifier, meanwhile fluorine anions are mobile above 373K. The variation of the thorium coordination number (from 8.5 to 9.5) with composition is followed by vibration spectroscopy. It has been verified that, in the system LixU1-xF4-3x the coordination number of uranium (equal to 8) does not depends on the composition. The paramagnetism of uranium glasses determined by EPR and magnetic measurements, due to the paramagnetism of isolated uranium atom, forbids NMR studies on these samples. Crystal structure determination of Li3ThF7 has been performed on single crystal by X-ray diffraction: tetragonal system, space group P4/ncc; a= 6.200(1)&#197, c=12.937(2)&#197, Z=4. The structure is characterized by layers of ThF9 polyhedra sharing 4 corners in ab plane. The lithium atoms are localized between these layers and bridge ThF9 polyhedra along c-axis. There is a 1:3 disorder of lithium atoms in the sites 8f and 16g. The rapid exchange of the lithium ions between non equivalent sites modulates the electric field gradients seen by individual lithium and can explain the behavior of the 7Li quadrupolar effect observed (above 333K) in the crystalline phase. Calculations of the main components of the electric field gradient tensor according to the different sites of lithium atoms indicate a part of covalence in the Th-F bond and support the lithium planar diffusion between thorium polyhedra layers. The comparison between the lithium planar diffusion in the crystalline phase Li3ThF7, and in the vitreous composition Li0,75Th0,25F1,75 allows an explanation of the slightly weaker activation energy observed in the crystal. The periodicity of the Li+ layers in the crystal facilities this mobility hindered at the contrary by the short range distorted chains of thorium polyhedral in the glass. An X-ray study of the polycrystalline phase LiZnF3 does not permit to choose between the three possible structures: corindon, ilmenite or LiTaO3 type. A comparison between experimental and theoretical 19F second moment leads to eliminate the structural hypothesis of LiTaO3 type. The deconvolution of the 7Li resonance spectrum shows a first order quadrupolar effect of the lithium and allows the calculation of the quadrupolar splitting. This effect in contradiction with a corindon type structure, is in good agreement with the ilmenite type, showing the first fluoride synthesized with an ilmenite structure.

The synthesis of 2,4,6,8-Tetramethylcyclotetrasiloxane (D4H), and Poly(methylhydrosiloxane) (PMHS) average molecular weight 1700-3200 g/mol, were functionalized with different repeat units of methoxy polyethylene glycol (PEG) (n = 8,12,17). These compounds act as polymer electrolytes with a backbone of siloxane and they were prepared via hydro-silylation reaction to be functionalized with different molecular weights of Ally-PEG. The compounds were confirmed by FT-IR, 1H-NMR and 13C NMR spectroscopy. A hydro-silylation reaction between the functionalized AllyPEG of different molecular weights produced four compounds with a low glass transition temperature that could improve comb like polymer electrolytes conductivity by reducing crystalline phase of PEO. Another way to increase the percentage of the amorphous phase of PEO is to blend it with other polymers. The blending method is considered to be an important method to improve the ionic conductivities and dimensional stability of polymer electrolytes. The main advantages of the blend systems are the simplicity of preparation and the ease to control the physical properties. A high molecular weight of poly 2- vinyl pyridine (Mw=200,000) was added to improve the dimensional stability. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) thermal analysis shows that all the blend systems will exhibit an increase in the glass transition temperature by increasing the salt content. The other novel synthesis of polymer electrolytes are triglyme borane and borosilicate. They were synthesized via hydro-boration. These compounds were characterized and confirmed by FT-IR, 1H-NMR 13C NMR spectroscopy. The ionic conductivity of both systems, pure and blend, of different compositions were determined at four temperatures i.e. 25°C, 40°C, 55°C and 70°C. A maximum ionic conductivity value of the siloxane blend is 9.1x10-4 S cm-1 and the pure triglyme borane is 2.14x10-3 S cm-1 at ambient temperature. The ratios of ethylene oxide to lithium salt of siloxane blend and pure triglyme borane were 10:1 and 35:1 respectively. These ratios were the highest conductivity obtained in all the electrolyte systems. The ionic conductivity increases with increasing temperature and salt content to reach optimum concentration. This behavior results in ionic transport, which is supported by the segmental motion of the polymer matrix host.

Nesse trabalho foi proposto investigar a estabilidade de fases do sistema zircônia-escândia (ScSZ) por meio do estudo termodinâmico de nanopartículas, na faixa de 0 a 20% em mol de Sc2O3, e a partir da introdução de um segundo aditivo (Dy2O3 e Nb2O5) ao ZrO2 contendo 10% em mol de Sc2O3 (10ScSZ). A estabilidade de fases do ScSZ foi avaliada com base em dados termodinâmicos determinados pelas técnicas de microcalorimetria de adsorção de água e calorimetria de dissolução à alta temperatura. As soluções sólidas foram sintetizadas pelo método de coprecipitação de hidróxidos. Dados termodinâmicos foram determinados para as formas polimórficas encontradas (monoclínica, tetragonal, cúbica, romboédrica β e γ) por difração de raios X no ScSZ. Esse trabalho resultou no diagrama de fases em nanoescala de tamanho de partícula-composição. Os efeitos produzidos pela introdução de aditivos na matriz de 10ScSZ foram investigados visando obter a possível estabilização da estrutura cúbica (c) e a supressão da transformação de fase c-β, característica do sistema binário. As composições foram sintetizadas por coprecipitação de hidróxidos e por reações em estado sólido para fins comparativos. Os materiais foram sinterizados convencionalmente e por sinterização assistida por campo elétrico. A estabilização completa da fase cúbica ocorreu a partir de teores molares de 1% de Dy2O3 e 0,5% de Nb2O5. O menor teor de Nb2O5 necessário para a estabilização da fase foi atribuído à provável formação da fase líquida durante a sinterização e ao menor tamanho do íon Nb5+. Os resultados de difratometria de raios X em alta temperatura e análise térmica mostraram que houve supressão da transição c-β. As amostras contendo 0,5% mol de Nb2O5 apresentaram valores de condutividade iônica similares aos do 10ScSZ sem aditivos em uma ampla faixa de temperatura com elevada estabilidade em um período de 170 h a 600 °C. / In this work, the phase stability of scandia-zirconia (ScSZ) system was investigated by the thermodynamic study of nanoparticles, within the range of 0 to 20 mol% Sc2O3, and by codoping of ZrO2-10 mol% Sc2O3 (10ScSZ) with Dy2O3 and Nb2O5. The phase stability of ScSZ was evaluated based on thermodynamic data collected by water adsorption microcalorimetry and high temperature oxide melt solution. Nanostructured zirconia-scandia solid solutions were synthesized by coprecipitaion method. Thermodynamic data were determined for ScSZ polymorphs (monoclinic, tetragonal, cubic, rhombohedral β and γ) found by X-ray diffraction. This systemic work resulted in an unprecedented phase diagram at the nanoscale of particle size-composition. The effects of additives on 10ScSZ were investigated aiming to stabilize the cubic (c) structure at room temperature and to suppress the characteristic cubic-rhombohedral β phase transformation. Compositions were prepared by coprecipitation and solid state reaction. Materials were sintered by conventional and spark plasma sintering. Full stabilization of the cubic phase was attained by 1 mol% Dy2O3 and 0.5 mol% Nb2O5 additions. The smallest Nb2O5 content required for cubic phase stabilization was attributed to liquid phase formation during sintering and to small ionic radius of Nb5+. Results of high temperature X-ray diffraction and thermal analysis show suppression of the c-β transformation. Samples containing 0.5 mol% Nb2O5 show total ionic conductivity similar to 10ScSZ without additives within a broad temperature range with high stability during 170 h at 600 °C.

Nesse trabalho foi proposto investigar a estabilidade de fases do sistema zircônia-escândia (ScSZ) por meio do estudo termodinâmico de nanopartículas, na faixa de 0 a 20% em mol de Sc2O3, e a partir da introdução de um segundo aditivo (Dy2O3 e Nb2O5) ao ZrO2 contendo 10% em mol de Sc2O3 (10ScSZ). A estabilidade de fases do ScSZ foi avaliada com base em dados termodinâmicos determinados pelas técnicas de microcalorimetria de adsorção de água e calorimetria de dissolução à alta temperatura. As soluções sólidas foram sintetizadas pelo método de coprecipitação de hidróxidos. Dados termodinâmicos foram determinados para as formas polimórficas encontradas (monoclínica, tetragonal, cúbica, romboédrica β e γ) por difração de raios X no ScSZ. Esse trabalho resultou no diagrama de fases em nanoescala de tamanho de partícula-composição. Os efeitos produzidos pela introdução de aditivos na matriz de 10ScSZ foram investigados visando obter a possível estabilização da estrutura cúbica (c) e a supressão da transformação de fase c-β, característica do sistema binário. As composições foram sintetizadas por coprecipitação de hidróxidos e por reações em estado sólido para fins comparativos. Os materiais foram sinterizados convencionalmente e por sinterização assistida por campo elétrico. A estabilização completa da fase cúbica ocorreu a partir de teores molares de 1% de Dy2O3 e 0,5% de Nb2O5. O menor teor de Nb2O5 necessário para a estabilização da fase foi atribuído à provável formação da fase líquida durante a sinterização e ao menor tamanho do íon Nb5+. Os resultados de difratometria de raios X em alta temperatura e análise térmica mostraram que houve supressão da transição c-β. As amostras contendo 0,5% mol de Nb2O5 apresentaram valores de condutividade iônica similares aos do 10ScSZ sem aditivos em uma ampla faixa de temperatura com elevada estabilidade em um período de 170 h a 600 °C. / In this work, the phase stability of scandia-zirconia (ScSZ) system was investigated by the thermodynamic study of nanoparticles, within the range of 0 to 20 mol% Sc2O3, and by codoping of ZrO2-10 mol% Sc2O3 (10ScSZ) with Dy2O3 and Nb2O5. The phase stability of ScSZ was evaluated based on thermodynamic data collected by water adsorption microcalorimetry and high temperature oxide melt solution. Nanostructured zirconia-scandia solid solutions were synthesized by coprecipitaion method. Thermodynamic data were determined for ScSZ polymorphs (monoclinic, tetragonal, cubic, rhombohedral β and γ) found by X-ray diffraction. This systemic work resulted in an unprecedented phase diagram at the nanoscale of particle size-composition. The effects of additives on 10ScSZ were investigated aiming to stabilize the cubic (c) structure at room temperature and to suppress the characteristic cubic-rhombohedral β phase transformation. Compositions were prepared by coprecipitation and solid state reaction. Materials were sintered by conventional and spark plasma sintering. Full stabilization of the cubic phase was attained by 1 mol% Dy2O3 and 0.5 mol% Nb2O5 additions. The smallest Nb2O5 content required for cubic phase stabilization was attributed to liquid phase formation during sintering and to small ionic radius of Nb5+. Results of high temperature X-ray diffraction and thermal analysis show suppression of the c-β transformation. Samples containing 0.5 mol% Nb2O5 show total ionic conductivity similar to 10ScSZ without additives within a broad temperature range with high stability during 170 h at 600 °C.

Polymer electrolytes are the most obvious candidates for safe "all-solid" Li-ion batteries and other electrochemical devices. However, they still have relatively poor ionic conductivities, which limits their wider adoption in commercial applications. It has earlier been the conventional wisdom that only amorphous phases of polymer electrolytes show usefully high ionic conduction, while crystalline forms are insulators. However, this has been challenged in the last decade by the discovery of highly organized, low-dimensional ion-conducting materials. Specifically, the crystalline phases of LiXF6.PEO6 exhibit higher ionic conductivities than their amorphous counterparts, with the Li-ion conduction taking place along the PEO channels. Polymer chain-length and chain-end registry has emerged as potentially significant in determining ionic conduction in these materials. Molecular Dynamics simulations have therefore been made of short-chain, monodisperse (Mw~1000), methoxy end-capped LiPF6.PEO6 to examine relationships between ion conduction and mode of chain-ordering. Studies of smectic and nematic arrangements of PEO chains have revealed that ion-transport mechanisms within the smectic planes formed by cooperative chain-end registry appear to be more suppressed by ion-pairing than in-channel conduction. Disorder phenomena in the chain-end regions emerge as a critical factor in promoting Li-ion migration across chain-gaps, as does the structural continuity of the PEO channels. Simulations incorporating ~1% aliovalent SiF62- dopants further suggest an increase in Li-ion conduction when the extra Li-ions reside within the PEO channels, with the anion influencing charge-carrier concentration through enhanced ion-pair formation. XRD techniques alone are shown to be inadequate in ascertaining the significance of the various short-chain models proposed; atomistic modelling is clearly a helpful complement in distinguishing more or less favourable situations for ion conduction. Though providing valuable insights, it must be concluded that this work has hardly brought us significantly closer to breakthroughs in polymer electrolyte design; the critical factors which will make this possible remain as yet obscure.

As the demand for clean and renewable energy sources continues to grow, much attention has been given to solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) due to their efficiency and low operating temperature. However, the components of SOFCs must still be improved before commercialization can be reached. Of particular interest is the solid electrolyte, which conducts oxygen ions from the cathode to the anode. Samarium-doped ceria (SDC) is the electrolyte of choice in most SOFCs today, due mostly to its high ionic conductivity at low temperatures. However, the underlying principles that contribute to high ionic conductivity in doped ceria remain unknown, and so it is difficult to improve upon the design of SOFCs. This thesis focuses on identifying the atomistic interactions in SDC which contribute to its favourable performance in the fuel cell. Unfortunately, information as basic as the structure of SDC has not yet been found due to the difficulty in experimentally characterizing and computationally modelling the system. For instance, to evaluate 10.3% SDC, which is close to the 11.1% concentration used in fuel cells, one must investigate 194 trillion configurations, due to the numerous ways of arranging the Sm ions and oxygen vacancies in the simulation cell. As an exhaustive search method is clearly unfeasible, we develop a genetic algorithm (GA) to search the vast potential energy surface for the low-energy configurations, which will be most prevalent in the real material. With the GA, we investigate the structure of SDC for the first time at the DFT+U level of theory. Importantly, we find key differences in our results from prior calculations of this system which used less accurate methods, which demonstrate the importance of accurately modelling the system. Overall, our simulation results of the structure of SDCagree with experimental measurements. We identify the structural significance of defects in the doped ceria lattice which contribute to oxygen ion conductivity. Thus, the structure of SDC found in this work provides a basis for developing better solid electrolytes, which is of significant scientific and technological interest. Following the structure search, we perform an investigation of the electronic properties of SDC, to understand more about the material. Notably, we compare our calculated density of states plot to XPS measurements of pure and reduced SDC. This allows us to parameterize the Hubbard (U) term for Sm, which had not yet been done. Importantly, the DFT+U treatment of the Sm ions also allowed us to observe in our simulations the magnetization of SDC, which was found by experiment. Finally, we also study the SDC surface, with an emphasis on its structural similarities to the bulk. Knowledge of the surface structure is important to be able to understand how fuel oxidation occurs in the fuel cell, as many reaction mechanisms occur on the surface of this porous material. The groundwork for such mechanistic studies is provided in this thesis.

As the demand for clean and renewable energy sources continues to grow, much attention has been given to solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) due to their efficiency and low operating temperature. However, the components of SOFCs must still be improved before commercialization can be reached. Of particular interest is the solid electrolyte, which conducts oxygen ions from the cathode to the anode. Samarium-doped ceria (SDC) is the electrolyte of choice in most SOFCs today, due mostly to its high ionic conductivity at low temperatures. However, the underlying principles that contribute to high ionic conductivity in doped ceria remain unknown, and so it is difficult to improve upon the design of SOFCs. This thesis focuses on identifying the atomistic interactions in SDC which contribute to its favourable performance in the fuel cell. Unfortunately, information as basic as the structure of SDC has not yet been found due to the difficulty in experimentally characterizing and computationally modelling the system. For instance, to evaluate 10.3% SDC, which is close to the 11.1% concentration used in fuel cells, one must investigate 194 trillion configurations, due to the numerous ways of arranging the Sm ions and oxygen vacancies in the simulation cell. As an exhaustive search method is clearly unfeasible, we develop a genetic algorithm (GA) to search the vast potential energy surface for the low-energy configurations, which will be most prevalent in the real material. With the GA, we investigate the structure of SDC for the first time at the DFT+U level of theory. Importantly, we find key differences in our results from prior calculations of this system which used less accurate methods, which demonstrate the importance of accurately modelling the system. Overall, our simulation results of the structure of SDCagree with experimental measurements. We identify the structural significance of defects in the doped ceria lattice which contribute to oxygen ion conductivity. Thus, the structure of SDC found in this work provides a basis for developing better solid electrolytes, which is of significant scientific and technological interest. Following the structure search, we perform an investigation of the electronic properties of SDC, to understand more about the material. Notably, we compare our calculated density of states plot to XPS measurements of pure and reduced SDC. This allows us to parameterize the Hubbard (U) term for Sm, which had not yet been done. Importantly, the DFT+U treatment of the Sm ions also allowed us to observe in our simulations the magnetization of SDC, which was found by experiment. Finally, we also study the SDC surface, with an emphasis on its structural similarities to the bulk. Knowledge of the surface structure is important to be able to understand how fuel oxidation occurs in the fuel cell, as many reaction mechanisms occur on the surface of this porous material. The groundwork for such mechanistic studies is provided in this thesis.