Satellites have revolutionized navigation by making it more universal, accessible and ac- curate. Global Positioning System (GPS) is the most widely used satellite navigation system in the world. However, it is prone to errors from various sources such as the ionosphere, troposphere and clock biases. In order to make the system very accurate and reliable, especially to meet the requirements of safety-critical applications, Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) have recently been designed in various countries to augment the GPS by providing corrections for its errors. An Indian SBAS called GAGAN (GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation), developed for the Airports Authority of India (AAI) by Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) is currently being installed and proven for aviation and other use. The uncertain propagation delay of signals through the ionosphere is the most important contributor of error in GPS positioning, its maximal elimination is a major task of SBAS overlays. Ionospheric delays have steady, cyclic, and irregular components. The last types are of particular concern because they are unpredictable. This thesis deals with ionospheric depletion, an important phenomenon of this class that is specific to tropical regions like India and hence have not been well studied in the context of other SBAS systems of the world which cover mid-latitude domains. Depletion is an ionospheric phenomenon in which the density of electrons dips suddenly and then returns close to the previous value. It poses a challenge to the model adopted for ionospheric delay estimation since it may not be detectable by ground systems be- cause of its localized nature, and its occurrence and intensity cannot be predicted. In this work we have analyzed the depletion characteristics over the Indian region such as its distribution, frequency of occurrence, and depth and duration parameters. We have then studied and implemented an existing algorithm to detect a depletion from the Total Electron Content (TEC) data. This algorithm has been found to be inaccurate for estimation of depletion duration, and we have proposed an improved algorithm for depletion detection and shown it to be more suitable for the Indian SBAS, GAGAN. The algorithm utilizes multiple thresholds for depletion detection in order to improve performance in the presence of irregularities including noise. These thresholds are determined by analyzing real TEC data containing depletion events over the Indian region. The detected depletion events are those that have a strong likelihood of contributing large range errors and degrading GAGAN's reliability. The thresholds include depletion parameters such as the depth, duration, rate of change of TEC, and the rate of change of slope of the TEC curve. The characterization of depletion events over the Indian region yielded useful insights into the behaviour of the phenomenon. It was observed that the depletion events were invariably present post-sunset, between 1900 and 0200 hrs. This observation is consistent with the other studies on plasma bubbles so far. The average depth of the depletion was found to be about 3.31 meters of propagation delay while the strongest depletion corresponds to about 5.04 meters of delay. The latter observation impresses upon the need to detect and study the phenomenon of depletion since it is capable of causing a significant loss of accuracy and reliability to the system. The duration of the depletion was found to range from about 10 min to 2.35 hours. In addition, a statistical study of the relationship among the different parameters and a study devoted to now-casting of depletion was made to get a more quantitative insight into the phenomenon of depletion. Scintillation is another phenomenon occurring in the ionosphere which causes rapid fluctuations of phase and amplitude of the signal due to TEC variations in the ionosphere. The occurrences of depletion were observed to be accompanied by scintillation, as also noted in previous studies. The correlation of depletion and scintillation was studied using the data available for this research. A spatial characterization of the depletion events was also investigated using the same temporal TEC data from neighbouring stations which were relatively close to each other. This study addressed the movement of the plasma bubble with respect to the advection speed and direction with definite results. Attention was also devoted to the spatial dimension of the bubble as observed from various stations. Contributions to this variability in the apparent spatial extent comes from the observation of the depletion event from varying lines-of-sight corresponding to different GPS satellites which are also moving, and the differential `slicing' effect because of the location of the stations with respect to the plasma bubble, in addition to the evolution of the bubble during transit. The detection of depletion and its temporal characterization, in addition to the knowledge of its spatial extent and motion, can provide very useful insights on the behaviour of a depletion event and over the ionosphere in general. This knowledge and the mechanism for detection can help to improve the quality and dependability of the information provided by SBAS systems, in particular the Indian GAGAN system, for improved navigation in this part of the world. The present thesis aims to make a significant contribution in this direction.

The High Frequency (HF) band, 3-30 MHz, is used when no infrastructure for long-range communications is available. New technology, such as digital signal processing enables higher data rate in the HF band, which in 2000s has resulted in increased commercial use. Reflection of radio waves in the ionosphere allows for beyond horizon communication, and are a unique property of the HF band. However, properties of the ionosphere are highly dependent of radiation from the sun, which varies with geographical location, season and time. The use of unmanned areal vehicle (UAV) has increased during the past years. In this project it is investigated if a HF transmitter can be placed on a small UAV platform. The objective is to get an estimation of the probabilities for successful HF transfer of real-time data from a small UAV. For example, the data could be sensor- or position data. When studying a complex problem having several parameters, such as a HF communication system, it is necessary to use the systems approach. This report illustrates the impact of size of the transmitting antenna, transmitter output power and bandwidth as well as different sources of noise and its levels. The results and analysis, made in this project, shows that there are feasible solutions for every tested case except at very high latitudes. Frequency planning, that is finding the less occupied channel, is almost as important as maximizing the signal to noise ratio. This project has been carried out on behalf of ÅF Technology in Solna, Sweden.

La transmission radioélectrique à longue distance dans la bande HF permet de couvrir de vastes zones géographiques à l’aide d’infrastructures légères et mobiles. Elle est donc bien adaptée pour établir des communications lors d’opérations militaires ou pour le déploiement rapide d'un réseau de communication agile lors d'opérations humanitaires. Dans ce contexte, il est important de pouvoir localiser les émetteurs inconnus par l’analyse des signaux électromagnétiques de communication. L’objectif de la thèse est de développer une technique de géolocalisation alternative et complémentaire, intitulée Time Difference of Arrival (TDoA), qui a rarement été étudiée dans le cas de la propagation ionosphérique. Dans un premier temps, l'algorithme de géolocalisation HF basé sur la technique TDoA est adapté et optimisé par des simulations paramétriques. Les résultats de simulation montrent que l'augmentation du nombre de récepteurs entraîne une amélioration significative de la précision de géolocalisation. Afin d'étudier la faisabilité de mise en oeuvre d'un système de géolocalisation HF basé sur la technique TDoA, plusieurs récepteurs HF pilotable à distance ont été développés à partir de modules de radio logicielle, et un réseau national de récepteurs a été déployé en France. Un concept original de sondage de canal croisé est proposé et décrit mathématiquement. Il permet d’évaluer les différences de durée de propagation entre les signaux reçus sur deux récepteurs synchronisés distincts. Les résultats expérimentaux collectés montrent qu'il est possible de localiser les émetteurs HF dans des conditions favorables avec une erreur de géolocalisation relative comprise entre 0,1 et 10% de la distance réelle au sol. Les données collectées lors de la campagne de mesure sont analysées de manière statistique afin d’évaluer la performance de l'algorithme de géolocalisation et de définir les paramètres les plus pertinents à prendre en compte pour déployer cette technique dans une approche opérationnelle. / Long-range radio transmission in the HF band can cover large geographical areas using light and mobile equipment. It is therefore well suited for communications during military operations orfor the rapid deployment of an agile communication network during humanitarian operations. In this context, it is important to determine the geographic location of the transmitters by analyzing the electromagnetic communication signals. The aim of the thesis is to develop an alternative, complementary geolocation technique, entitled Time Difference of Arrival (TDoA) that has rarely been studied in the case of ionospheric propagation. As a first step, HF geolocation algorithm based on TDoA is setup and analyzed by parametric software simulations. Simulation results demonstrate that increasing the number of receivers leads to a significant improvement in the geolocation accuracy. In order to study the feasibility of a practical HF geolocation system based on TDoA, multiple remotely controllable HF receivers are designed using software defined radio (SDR) modules and a country wide operational receiver network is deployed in France. A concept of cross-channel sounding along with its mathematical description is proposed to evaluate the propagation duration differences between the signals captured by two distinct receivers. Preliminary experimental results show that it is possible to locate the HF transmitters under favorable conditions with a relative geolocation error ranging from about 0.1 to 10% of the actual ground distance. Data captured during the large scale measurement campaign are analyzed statistically to evaluate the performance of the geolocation algorithm and define parameters that could be considered in an operational approach.

Thesis advisor: Prof. Michael J. Naughton / Thesis advisor: Dr. Cesar E. Valladares / The equatorial and low-latitude ionosphere of the Earth exhibits unique features on its structuring, coupling, and electrodynamics that offer the possibility to forecast the dynamics and fluctuations of ionospheric plasma densities at later times. The scientific understanding and forecasting of ionospheric plasma are necessary for several practical applications, such as for mitigating the adverse effects of space weather on communication, navigation, power grids, space mission, and for various scientific experiments and applications. The daytime equatorial electrojet (EEJ), equatorial ionization anomaly (EIA), as well as nighttime equatorial plasma bubble (EPB) and plasma blobs are the most prominent low-latitude ionospheric phenomena. This dissertation focuses on the multi-diagnostic study of the mechanism, properties, abnormalities, and interrelationships of these phenomena to provide significant contributions to space weather communities from the ground- and space-based measurements. A strong longitudinal, seasonal, day-to-day variability and dependency between EEJ, ExB vertical plasma drift, and total electron content (TEC) in the EIA distribution are seen in the equatorial and low-latitude region. In general, the EEJ strength is stronger in the west coast of South America than in its east coast. The variability of the EEJ in the dayside ionosphere significantly affects the ionospheric electron density variation, dynamics of the peak height of F2-layer, and TEC distributions as the EEJ influences the vertical transport mechanism of the ionospheric plasma. The eastward electric field (EEF) and the neutral wind play a decisive role in controlling the actual configuration of the EIA. The trans-equatorial neutral wind profile calculated using data from the Second-generation, Optimized, Fabry-Perot Doppler Imager (SOFDI) located near the geomagnetic equator and a physics-based numerical model, LLIONS (Low-Latitude IONospheric Sector) give new perspectives on the effects of daytime meridional neutral winds on the consequent evolution of the asymmetry of the equatorial TEC anomalies during the afternoon onwards. The spatial configurations including the strength, shape, amplitude and latitudinal extension of the EIA crests are affected by the EEF associated with the EEJ under undisturbed conditions, whereas the meridional neutral winds play a significant role in the development of their asymmetric structure in the low-latitude ionosphere. Additionally, the SWARM satellite constellation and the ground-based LISN (Low-Latitude Ionospheric Sensor Network) data allow us to resolve the space-time ambiguity of past single-satellite studies and detect the drastic changes that EPBs and plasma blobs undergo on a short time scale. The coordinated quantitative analysis of a plasma density observation shows evidence of the association of plasma blobs with EPBs via an appropriate geomagnetic flux tube. Plasma blobs were initially associated with the EPBs and remained at the equatorial latitude right above the EPBs height, but later were pushed away from geomagnetic equator towards EIA latitudes by the EPB/ depleted flux tubes that grew in volume. Further, there exists a strong correlation between the noontime equatorial electrojet and the GPS-derived TEC distributions during the afternoon time period, caused by vertical E × B drift via the fountain effect. Nevertheless, only a minor correlation likely exists between the peak EEJ and the net postsunset ionospheric scintillation index (S4) greater than 0.2. This study not only searches for a mutual relationship between the midday, afternoon and nighttime ionospheric phenomena but also aims at providing a possible route to improve our space weather forecasting capability by predicting nighttime ionospheric irregularities based on midday measurements at the equatorial and low latitudes. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2018. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Physics.

Electron density irregularities influence Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) signals, manifesting as ionospheric scintillation. Scintillation poses a service risk to safety-critical GNSS applications at high latitudes. It is difficult to predict, as ionospheric instability processes are not yet fully characterised. This research combines the fields of ionospheric imaging and scintillation monitoring, to investigate the causes of scintillation in the Antarctic and Arctic. Results revealed a plasma patch structure above Antarctica, in response to the impact of a solar wind shock front. Measurements from a network of Global Positioning System scintillation receivers across the continent revealed moderate levels of phase scintillation associated with Total Electron Content (TEC) gradients at the patch break-off point. Scintillation was also driven by solar particle precipitation at E and F region altitudes, verified with in situ spectrometers on polar-orbiting satellites. The current receiver coverage in the region provided the Multi-Instrument Data Analysis Software (MIDAS) tomography tool with sufficient data to track the lifetime of the plasma patch without a convection model. A second experiment was performed at the South Pole, using a collocated GPS scintillation receiver and auroral imager. This allowed simultaneous line-of-sight tracking of GPS signals through the optical auroral emissions. Results showed the first statistical evidence that auroral emissions can be used a proxy for ionospheric irregularities causing GPS scintillation. The relationship was strongest during the presence of discrete auroral arcs. Correlation levels of up to 74% were found over periods of 2-3 hours. The use of multiple emission wavelengths provided basic altitude discrimination. Current capability of ionospheric TEC mapping in the Arctic was tested, where GPS receiver distribution is extensive compared to present Antarctic coverage. Analysis of the ionosphere’s response to a storm event revealed a sequential picture of polar cap patch activity, without the aid of plasma convection modelling. The electron density enhancements of the auroral oval were imaged in completeness for the first time using GPS tomography. Reconstructions were verified using ultraviolet auroral imagery from polar-orbit satellites, and vertical profiles from an incoherent scatter radar.

The purpose of this thesis is to investigate whether it is feasible to use Langmuir probes on pico-satellites flying in low Earth orbit over mid- to low-latitude geographic regions. Following chapters on the expected ionospheric conditions and an overview of Langmuir probe theory, a chapter addressing the difficulties involved with pico-satellite Langmuir probes is presented. Also, the necessary satellite-to-probe surface area requirements in order to achieve confidence in pico-satellite Langmuir probe data, for the orbital regions of interest to this thesis, are stated.

We present results on the ionospheric structure around Titan observed during numerous deep (<1000 km) flybys by the Cassini spacecraft. Our results are based on measurements by the radio and plasma wave science instrument, in particular the Langmuir probe. In addition, data from the magnetometer and electron spectrometer have contributed. The ionosphere of Titan is created when the atmosphere of the moon becomes ionised. There are several mechanisms that contribute to this, the most important of which are considered to be photoionisation by EUV from the Sun with associated photoelectron ionisation, and particle impact ionisation by electrons and ions from Saturn’s corotating magnetosphere. We investigate the influence of the solar zenith angle on the electron number density at the ionospheric peak. The results show on average four times more plasma on the dayside compared to the nightside, with typical densities of 2500 – 3500 cm-3 and 400 – 1000 cm-3, respectively. In a complementary study, we make a case study of a nightside flyby and show that the altitude structure of the deep ionosphere is reproducible by a simple electron impact ionisation model. Taken together, this leads to the conclusion that solar photons are the main ionisation source of the dayside ionosphere. However, magnetospheric particle precipitation also contributes and can explain the electron densities seen on the nightside. As Titan does not exhibit any large intrinsic magnetic field, the fact that it is embedded in the magnetosphere of Saturn means that the Kronian field drapes around the moon and gives rise to an induced magnetosphere. We show that there are currents of the order of 10 – 100 nA m-2 flowing in the ionosphere of the moon. Associated with the currents are perpendicular electric fields ranging from 0.5 to 3 µV m-1. Finally, we investigate measurements obtained during T70, the deepest Titan flyby performed to date. We show that there is a substantial amount of negative ions present below an altitude of 900 km. This confirms previous result by the electron spectrometer, showing negative ions at higher altitudes in Titan’s ionosphere.

A 50 MHz Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) radar system, developed at the University of Saskatchewan to provide improved spatial and temporal resolution measurements of auroral E-region plasma processes, introduces ambiguous spectral information, due to spectral ghosting, for scattering events in which multiple radar echoes are detected. This thesis identifies two Linearly Frequency Modulated (LFM) radar waveforms used by the FMCW system as the source of the ghosting. An analysis procedure designed to counteract the spectral ghosting problem is developed but is not an ideal solution, and therefore replacement of the LFM waveforms is recommended.<p> A detailed investigation of alternative radar waveforms using the Ambiguity Function and Ambiguity Diagram techniques is performed. A frequency coded continuous wave radar waveform based on a composite Costas sequence is proposed as a successor to the LFM waveforms. The composite Costas radar waveform will conserve the spatial and temporal resolutions extended by the LFM waveforms and preclude any spectral ghosting. Implementing the proposed radar waveform and avoiding receiver saturation issues with the mono-static FMCW radar system in which both the transmitting and receiving antenna arrays are simultaneously and continuously active and geographically co-located is also discussed.<p> In addition to this, two 50 MHz backscatter events are presented in this thesis to demonstrate the effectiveness of the FMCW system, notwithstanding the spectral ghosting complication. The first event from November 21, 2009 is identified as a Type 1 instability and the second from September 13, 2009 is identified as a Type 2 instability which lasted for ~ 16 minutes. Linear plasma fluid theory is used to provide a brief interpretation of both scattering events.

Aquesta investigació s'ha centrat en profunditzar en el coneixement del comportament de l'estructura vertical de la regió F de la ionosfera, tant en condicions de calma com pertorbades, i en la seva modelització mitjançant funcions analítiques. Les pretensions d'aquesta investigació han estat motivades per les discrepàncies existents entre les prediccions ionosfèriques del gruix i la forma del perfil de densitat de la regió F en condicions de calma i la seva variació característica, i per l'absència d'un model capaç de reproduir la resposta de l'altura del màxim de ionització en condiciones pertorbades. En aquesta investigació s'ha determinat el comportament patró del gruix i la forma del perfil de densitat electrònica de la regió F en condicions de calma (determinats pels paràmetres B0 i B1 del model Internacional de Referència de la Ionosfera, IRI) en un ampli rang de longituds i latituds. Amb això, s'ha desenvolupat un model global per a cada paràmetre mitjançant una formulació analítica simple que simula les variacions temporals d'aquests en condiciones de calma. La simulació d'aquests models millora (en termes de l'error quadràtic mig, RMSE) les prediccions de l'IRI en un 40% per a B0 i en un 20% per a B1. També s'ha caracteritzat la reacció de l'altura del màxim de ionització, hmF2, a latituds mitges i condicions magnèticament pertorbades, i s'ha determinat un comportament sistemàtic d'aquesta pertorbació, &#8710;hmF2, la morfologia de la qual depèn del camp magnètic interplanetari (IMF), del temps local, de l'estació de l'any i la latitud. Amb això, s'ha desenvolupat un model empíric que simula la pertorbació d'hmF2 resultant durant tempestes geomagnètiques intenses mitjançant funcions analítiques. Aquest model prediu els esdeveniments d'&#8710;hmF2 amb un 86 % d'encert sense generar falses alarmes i amb un RMSE de 40 km respecte els valors experimentals, que és equivalent al rang de variació experimental obtingut en condicions de calma. Finalment, destacar que també han estat objecte d'estudi en aquesta investigació els mecanismes responsables del comportament ionosfèric tant en condiciones de calma com pertorbades i, especialment, el model de tempesta basat en el paper rector de la circulació del vent neutre termosfèric. / Esta investigación se ha centrado en profundizar en el conocimiento del comportamiento de la estructura vertical de la región F de la ionosfera, tanto en condiciones de calma como perturbadas, y en su modelado mediante funciones analíticas. Las pretensiones de esta investigación han estado motivadas por las discrepancias existentes entre las predicciones ionosféricas del espesor y la forma del perfil de densidad de la región F en condiciones de calma y su variación característica, y por la ausencia de un modelo capaz de reproducir la respuesta de la altura del máximo de ionización a condiciones perturbadas. En esta investigación se ha determinado el comportamiento patrón del espesor y la forma del perfil de densidad electrónica de la región F en condiciones de calma (determinados por los parámetros B0 y B1 del modelo Internacional de Referencia de la Ionosfera, IRI) en un amplio rango de longitudes y latitudes. Con esto, se ha desarrollado un modelo global para cada parámetro mediante una formulación analítica simple que simula las variaciones temporales de éstos en condiciones de calma. La simulación de estos modelos mejora (en términos del error cuadrático medio, RMSE) las predicciones del IRI en un 40% para B0 y en un 20% para B1. También se ha caracterizado la reacción de la altura del máximo de ionización, hmF2, en latitudes medias y condiciones magnéticamente perturbadas, y se ha determinado un comportamiento sistemático de dicha perturbación, &#8710;hmF2, cuya morfología depende del campo magnético interplanetario (IMF), del tiempo local, de la estación del año y de la latitud. Con ello, se ha desarrollado un modelo empírico que simula la perturbación en hmF2 resultante durante tormentas geomagnéticas intensas mediante funciones analíticas. Este modelo predice los eventos de &#8710;hmF2 con un 86% de acierto sin generar falsas alarmas y con un RMSE de 40 km respecto a los valores experimentales, que es equivalente al rango de variación experimental obtenido en condiciones de calma. Finalmente, resaltar que también han sido objeto de estudio en esta investigación los mecanismos responsables del comportamiento ionosférico tanto en condiciones de calma como perturbadas y, especialmente, el modelo de tormenta basado en el papel rector de la circulación del viento neutro termosférico. / The main objective of this research is to improve the knowledge on the vertical structure of the ionospheric F region during both, quiet and disturbed conditions, and its modelling by analytical functions. The main motivations of this research were the existing discrepancies between the predictions of the F region electron density profile thickness and shape during quiet conditions and their characteristic variation, and the absence of a model capable to reproduce the electron density peak height response to disturbed conditions. In this research, the pattern behaviour for quiet conditions of the F region electron density profile thickness and shape (determined by the International Reference Ionosphere model (IRI) parameters B0 and B1) was determined in a wide range of longitudes and latitudes. Then, a global model was developed for each parameter using a simple analytical formulation that simulates their temporal variations during quiet conditions. These model simulations improve (in terms of the root mean square error, RMSE) the IRI predictions by 40 % for B0 and by 20 % for B1. The reaction of the electron density peak height, hmF2, at mid latitudes and magnetically disturbed conditions, was also characterized and the systematic behaviour of this disturbance, &#8710;hmF2, was determined. The morphology of this disturbance depends on the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF), local time, season and latitude. Furthermore, an empirical model was developed to simulate the hmF2 disturbance during intense geomagnetic storms using analytical functions. This model predicts the &#8710;hmF2 events with a success of 86 % without generating false alarms and with a RMSE of 40 km with respect to the experimental values, which is equivalent to the experimental variation range obtained during quiet conditions. Finally, the mechanisms responsible of the ionospheric behaviour during both, quiet and disturbed conditions, were also studied in this research, specially the storm model based on the leading role of the thermospheric neutral wind circulation.

A 50 MHz Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) radar system, developed at the University of Saskatchewan to provide improved spatial and temporal resolution measurements of auroral E-region plasma processes, introduces ambiguous spectral information, due to spectral ghosting, for scattering events in which multiple radar echoes are detected. This thesis identifies two Linearly Frequency Modulated (LFM) radar waveforms used by the FMCW system as the source of the ghosting. An analysis procedure designed to counteract the spectral ghosting problem is developed but is not an ideal solution, and therefore replacement of the LFM waveforms is recommended.<p> A detailed investigation of alternative radar waveforms using the Ambiguity Function and Ambiguity Diagram techniques is performed. A frequency coded continuous wave radar waveform based on a composite Costas sequence is proposed as a successor to the LFM waveforms. The composite Costas radar waveform will conserve the spatial and temporal resolutions extended by the LFM waveforms and preclude any spectral ghosting. Implementing the proposed radar waveform and avoiding receiver saturation issues with the mono-static FMCW radar system in which both the transmitting and receiving antenna arrays are simultaneously and continuously active and geographically co-located is also discussed.<p> In addition to this, two 50 MHz backscatter events are presented in this thesis to demonstrate the effectiveness of the FMCW system, notwithstanding the spectral ghosting complication. The first event from November 21, 2009 is identified as a Type 1 instability and the second from September 13, 2009 is identified as a Type 2 instability which lasted for ~ 16 minutes. Linear plasma fluid theory is used to provide a brief interpretation of both scattering events.