Photoelectron Photoion Coincidence (PEPICO) spectroscopy is a robust tool for elucidating complex unimolecular dissociation mechanisms and for determining thermochemical and kinetic data of gas-phase ion dissociations with high accuracy. In this work, the dissociative photoionization of two sets of isomeric systems were analyzed with PEPICO: 1) C7H7+ ions of toluene (Tol) and 1,3,5-cycloheptatriene (CHT), and 2) two butyl alcohol isomers, 1-butanol and isobutanol. Threshold dissociative photoionization data on these four molecules of interest were collected on the imaging PEPICO apparatus at the VUV beamline of the Swiss Light Source. Data analysis was aided by ab initio calculations and Rice-Ramsperger-Kassel-Marcus (RRKM) statistical rate theory was employed to model the complex dissociation pathways of each system. Finally, thermochemical, reaction mechanism, and dissociation kinetics data were extracted from the modeled data and are reported here. In the first project, the dissociation of energy-selected 1,3,5-cycloheptatriene (CHT) and toluene (Tol) cations was investigated by imaging photoelectron photoion coincidence spectroscopy. In the measured energy ranges of 10.30−11.75 eV for CHT and 11.45−12.55 eV for Tol, only the hydrogen atom loss channels open up, leading to C7H7+ from both molecular ions, which are both metastable at the H-loss threshold. Our quantum chemical calculations showed that these ions can interconvert below their dissociation thresholds. Therefore, we constructed a single statistical model to describe both systems simultaneously. We determined 0 K appearance energies (E0) for the tropylium and benzyl fragment ions from CHT to be 9.520 ± 0.060 eV and 9.738 ± 0.082 eV, and from Tol to be 10.978 ± 0.063 eV and 11.196 ± 0.080 eV, respectively. Using the experimentally determined benzyl ion appearance energy, its 0 K heat of formation was calculated to be 937.9 ± 7.7 kJ mol–1. On the basis of this value and the recently determined benzyl ionization energy, we point out discrepancies concerning the benzyl radical thermochemistry. For the second project, the fragmentation processes of two internal energy-selected C4H10O+• cations, 1-butanol and isobutanol, were investigated. For both isomers, the first dissociation channel leads to the formation of C4H8+• ions (m/z = 56) by a water loss. Using statistical energy distribution and rate models, which include isomerization of the molecular ions, the 0 K appearance energies (E0) were determined to be 10.347 ± 0.015 eV and 10.566 ± 0.050 eV, for 1-butanol and isobutanol, respectively. The second dissociation channel, the formation of CH3OH2+, quickly overtakes the water-loss channel in isobutanol, with an E0 of 10.612 ± 0.020 eV, but appears only as a minor channel in 1-butanol with an E0 of 10.738 ± 0.080 eV. The methanol-loss channel, forming propylene ion, opens up at E0 = 10.942 ± 0.040 eV and 10.723 ± 0.020 eV in 1-butanol and isobutanol, respectively. The next two fragmentation pathways correspond to a complementary pair of C3H7+ through the loss of CH2OH, and CH2OH+ through the loss of C3H7. From both isomers, C3H7+ is the isopropyl ion, which is readily formed in isobutanol via a simple bond cleavage at E0 = 10.970 ± 0.050 eV and its pair, CH2OH+, at E0 = 11.11 ± 0.20 eV. However, there is an internal hydrogen shift necessary in 1-butanol and, therefore, the complementary ions appear at the same E0 of 11.104 ± 0.030 eV, which most likely corresponds to their common transition state. Finally, C3H5+, a product of sequential dissociation from m/z = 56, appears above 11.6 eV as a minor channel for both isomers.

<div><div><div><p>Lewis acid zeolites contain framework metal heteroatoms that catalyze sugar iso- merization reactions at different turnover rates depending on the local coordination around metal centers and the polarity of their confining secondary environments. Post-synthetic modification routes that react metal precursors with framework va- cancy defects in dealuminated Beta zeolites (Sn-Beta-PS-OH) are developed as an alternative synthetic strategy to the hydrothermal crystallization of Sn-Beta zeolites (Sn-Beta-HT-F). Post-synthetic routes provide the ability to systematically tailor the structural features of active and defect sites in Sn-zeolites, especially in composition ranges inaccessible to materials crystallized by hydrothermal routes (Si/Sn < 100; > 2 wt.% Sn), yet often result in incomplete or unselective Sn grafting within framework vacancy defects and form extraframework metal oxide domains and residual defect sites. The development of robust post-synthetic routes to prepare Sn-zeolites with intended active and defect structures has been limited by the dearth of characteri- zation techniques to unambiguously detect and quantify such structures present in stannosilicate materials, and of mechanistic links between such structures and the turnover rates of catalytic reactions.</p><p><br></p><p>The presence of framework Sn centers that can expand its coordination shell from four- to six-coordinate structures, and small extraframework tin oxide domains that cannot, were unambiguously detected from diffuse reflectance UV-Visible spectra of stannosilicate materials measured after dehydration treatments (523 K, 0.5 h) to discern ligand-to-metal charge transfer bands for tetrahedrally-coordinated Sn heteroatoms (< 220 nm, > 4.1 eV) and those for tin oxide domains (> 230 nm, < 4.1 eV). Liquid-phase grafting of stannic chloride in dichloromethane reflux (333 K) enables preparing Sn-Beta zeolites with higher framework Sn content (Si/Sn = 30– 144; 1.4–6.1 wt.% Sn) than grafting performed in isopropanol reflux (423 K, Si/Sn > 120; 1.6 wt.% Sn). This reflects competitive adsorption of isopropanol solvents with stannic chloride at framework vacancy defects during grafting procedures, consistent with infrared spectroscopy (IR) and temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) of dealuminated Beta samples after saturation with isopropanol at reflux temperatures (423 K), and not any limitations inherent to the structure of vacancy defects within dealuminated zeolite supports that would prevent reaction with metal precursors as often proposed.</p><p><br></p></div></div></div><div><div><div><p>This insight enabled preparing Sn-Beta zeolites with varying densities of residual defects, via dichloromethane-assisted grafting of stannic chloride to different extents, into dealuminated Beta supports of different initial Al content (Si/Al = 19–180) and mineralizing agent used for hydrothermal crystallization of the parent Al-Beta sam- ple (e.g., fluoride or hydroxide). Preparation of low-defect Sn-Beta zeolites using post-synthetic routes (Sn-Beta-PS-F) first required the synthesis of parent Al-Beta zeolites in fluoride media to minimize residual siloxy defects (OSi−) formed during crystallization, and dilute Al content (Si/Al > 100, < 0.6 Al (unit cell)−1), to min- imize the density of intrapore silanol groups formed after dealumination and high temperature oxidative treatment. The methanol packing density within microporous voids of Sn-Beta zeolites was assessed from relative volumetric uptakes at the point of micropore filling from single-component methanol (293 K) and nitrogen (77 K) adsorption isotherms, and decreased systematically among samples with increasing density of silanol groups. The total density of silanol groups within micropores and at external crystallite surface in Sn-Beta zeolites was quantified by H/D isotopic ex- change during temperature-programmed surface reactions (500–873 K), and within microporous voids from IR spectra measured after saturation of microporous binding sites with CD3CN (2275 cm−1, 303 K). In situ IR spectra collected at low methanol pressures (P/P0 < 0.2, 303 K) provide further evidence that methanol molecules ar- range in localized clusters within Sn-Beta-PS-F, but form extended hydrogen-bonded networks within Sn-Beta-PS-OH.</p><p><br></p></div></div></div><div><div><div><p>Glucose-fructose isomerization rate constants (373 K) were used to probe the lo- cal coordination of Sn heteroatoms and the polarity of the secondary environment as influenced by silanol defects within microporous cavities. Ex situ pyridine titration of Sn-Beta-HT-F samples suppressed isomerization rates (per total Sn, 373 K) after only a subset of Sn sites were poisoned, which correspond to the number of open Sn sites quantified ex situ via CD3CN IR (303 K), providing further evidence that open Sn sites are dominant active sites for glucose isomerization. First-order isomerization rate constants (373 K) decrease with increasing Sn content when normalized by total Sn density, and are invariant when normalized by the number of open Sn sites, be- cause open Sn sites are grafted preferentially within Sn-Beta-PS-OH (Si/Sn = 30–144; 1.4–6.1 wt.% Sn) at low Sn densities. Isomerization rate constants (per open Sn, 373 K), however, are lower by ∼4x and ∼15x on Sn-Beta-PS-F (Si/Sn = 284; 0.7 wt.% Sn) and Sn-Beta-PS-OH, respectively, than on Sn-Beta-HT-F. Open Sn sites catalyze aqueous-phase glucose isomerization at higher turnover rates (373 K) when their mi- croporous surroundings contain silanol defects present in low (hydrophobic) densities than high (hydrophilic) densities, which are characteristic of Sn-Beta-HT-F and Sn- Beta-PS-OH samples, respectively. This reflects reorganization of extended water networks, which are stabilized in high-defect, hydrophilic micropore environments, at kinetically relevant 1,2-hydride shift transition states that incurs entropic penal- ties that lower turnover rates. This thesis highlights the development of synthesis- structure-function relationships to guide the preparation of catalytic materials with intended active and defect site structures within confining reaction environments, the development of characterization techniques for the identification and quantification of such structures, and the influence of such structures on turnover rates of liquid-phase sugar isomerization.</p></div></div></div>

Plant derived oils bear intrinsic double-bond functionality that can be utilized directly for the thiol–ene reaction. Although terminal unsaturations are far more reactive than internal ones, studies on the reversible addition of thiyl radicals to 1,2-disubstituted alkenes show that this is an important reaction. To investigate the thiol–ene coupling reaction involving these enes, stoichiometric mixtures of a trifunctional propionate thiol with monounsaturated fatty acid methyl esters (methyl oleate or methyl elaidate) supplemented with 2.0 wt.% Irgacure 184 were subjected to 365-nm UV-irradiation and the chemical changes monitored. Continuous (RT– FTIR) and discontinuous (NMR and FT–Raman) techniques were used to follow the progress of the reaction and reveal details of the products formed. Experimental results supported by numerical kinetic simulations of the system confirm the reaction mechanism showing a very fast cis/trans-isomerization of the alkene monomers (&lt;1.0 min) when compared to the total disappearance of double-bonds, indicating that the rate-limiting step controlling the overall reaction is the hydrogen transfer from the thiol involved in the formation of final product. The loss of total unsaturations equals thiol consumption throughout the entire reaction; although product formation is strongly favoured directly from the trans-ene. This indicates that initial cis/trans-isomer structures affect the kinetics. High thiol–ene conversions could be easily obtained at reasonable rates without major influence of side-reactions demonstrating the suitability of this reaction for network forming purposes from 1,2-disubstituted alkenes. To further illustrate the validity of this concept in the formation of cross-linked thiol–ene films a series of globalide/caprolactone based copolyesters differing in degree of unsaturations along the backbone were photopolymerized in the melt with the same trithiol giving amorphous elastomeric materials with different thermal and viscoelastic properties. High thiol–ene conversions (&gt;80%) were easily attained for all cases at reasonable reaction rates, while maintaining the cure behaviour and independent of functionality. Parallel chain-growth ene homopolymerization was considered negligible when compared with the main coupling route. However, the comonomer feed ratio had impact on the thermoset properties with high ene-density copolymers giving networks with higher glass transition temperature values (Tg) and a narrower distribution of cross-links than films with lower ene composition. The thiol–ene systems evaluated in this study serve as model example for the sustainable use of naturally-occurring 1,2-disubstituted alkenes at making semi-synthetic polymeric materials in high conversions with a range of properties in an environment-friendly way. / Vegetabiliska oljor som innehåller dubbelbindningar kan användas direkt för thiolene reaktioner. Trots att terminala dubbelbindningar är mycket mer reaktiva än interna visar dessa studier att den reversibla additionen av thiyl radikaler till 1,2-disubstituerade alkener är en viktig reaktion. För att undersöka tiol–ene reaktionerna, som ivolverar dessa alkener förbereddes stökiometriska blandningar av en trifunktionell propionat tiol och enkelomättade fettsyrametylestrar (metyloleat eller metyl elaidat) samt 2.0 vikt.% Irgacure 184. Dessa blandningar utsattes för 365-nm UV strålning och de kemiska förändringarna studerades. De kemiska förändringarna analyserades med olika kemiska analysmetoder; realtid RT–FTIR, NMR och FT–Raman. Dessa användes för att analysera de kemiska reaktionerna i realtid och följa bildandet av produkterna. Reaktionsmekanismen bekräftades med hjälp av experimentella data och beräkningar av numeriska och kinetiska simuleringar för systemet. Resultaten visar en mycket snabb cis/trans-isomerisering av alkenmonomeren (&lt;1.0 min) jämfört med den totala förbrukningen av dubbelbindningarna, vilket indikerar att det hastighetsbegränsande steget kontrolleras av väteförflyttningen från tiolen till slutprodukten. Förbrukningen av den totala omättade kolkedjan är lika med tiolförbrukningen under hela reaktionen, även om bildandet av produkten gynnas från trans-enen. Detta indikerar att den första cis/trans-isomerstrukturen påverkar kinetiken. Höga tiol-ene utbyten kan enkelt erhållas relativt snabbt utan inverkan av sidoreaktioner. Detta innebär att denna reaktion kan användas som nätverksbildande reaktion för flerfunktionella 1,2-disubstituted alkenmonomerer. Vidare användes fotopolymerisation i smälta på en serie globalid/kaprolaktonbaserade sampolyestrar med varierad grad av omättnad med samma tritiol vilket resulterade i bildandet av amorfa elastomeriska material med olika termiska och viskoelastiska egenskaper. Hög omsättning (&gt;80%) uppnåddes relativt enkelt för samtliga blandningar oberoende av den initiala funktionaliteten. Homopolymerisation av alkenen var försumbar i jämförelse med den tiol–en-reaktionen. Mängden alkengrupper har inverkan på härdplastsegenskaperna där en hög andel alken ger en nätstruktur med högre glastransitionstemperatur (Tg). Tiol–ene reaktionen utvärderades i modellsystem baserade på naturlig förekommande 1,2-disubstituterade alkener för att demonstrera konceptet med tiol-förnätade halvsyntetiska material. / QC 20110915

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Cette thèse s’articule autour de deux grands axes indépendants. Le premier s’aligne sur les intérêts du groupe Collins pour la photocatalyse avec des complexes à base de cuivre. La photocatalyse apparait comme une branche de la chimie permettant de débloquer des réactivités difficilement accessibles par la chimie thermique. Si la majorité des réactions photocatalysées utilise des catalyseurs à base de ruthénium ou d’iridium, les complexes de cuivre(I) sont une alternative digne d’intérêt. Cependant, une connaissance plus profonde de la relation structure/activité de ces complexes est encore nécessaire. Cette thèse tentera donc d’apporter des éléments de réponse à cette problématique, en particulier pour les complexes de cuivre(I) hétéroleptiques, possédant un ligand diimine et un ligand diphosphine. Le premier chapitre présente le concept de la photocatalyse et les caractéristiques des photocatalyseurs de cuivre. Une sélection d’exemples de réactions photocatalysées par des complexes de cuivre permet d’établir l’état de l’art pour différents types de mécanismes. Le chapitre 2 présente l’étude de ligands diimine possédant un système π-étendu dans des complexes. Les complexes correspondants ont été étudiés dans trois réactions passant par des voies mécanistiques différentes. Si les complexes sont actifs pour les réactions de transfert d’électrons et d’énergie, ils ne possèdent pas une efficacité supérieure aux complexes précédemment reportés. Le chapitre 3 est une extension du chapitre 2. En effet, les ligands possédant un système π-étendu précédemment reportés ont été modifiés pour pouvoir former des complexes de cuivre avec la diphosphine BINAP. Les nouveaux complexes ont de nouveau été étudiés dans les trois réactions différentes, mais leur activité est semblable à celle des complexes reportés dans le chapitre 2. Les complexes ont aussi été étudiés pour leur activité anticancéreuse, et des résultats prometteurs ont été découverts. Le chapitre 4 résume l’étude d’une bibliothèque étendue de complexes de cuivre(I) pour l’isomérisation d’alcènes E→Z. L’efficacité des complexes dans la réaction est reliée à leurs propriétés photophysiques. Un complexe optimal a été trouvé, et utilisé pour isomériser une série de 25 alcènes différents. L’utilisation de la chimie en flux continu a aussi permis la mise en échelle de la réaction. Enfin un procédé séquentiel ATRA/PI a permis la formation d’alcènes tri- et tétra-substitués à partir d’alcynes et de chlorures de sulfonyles. Le deuxième axe de cette thèse se base sur le développement de diynes-1,3 pour leur utilisation dans les réactions de « click » promues par la tension. Le chapitre 6 introduit les concepts de chimie « click » et de cycloaddition alcyne-azoture promue par la tension (SPAAC), et l’état de l’art des diynes-1,3 et des alcynes tendus. Le chapitre 7 présente donc le développement d’une nouvelle classe de diynes-1,3 tendus pour la réaction de SPAAC. La vitesse de la réaction est étudiée et des calculs computationnels viennent corroborer la réactivité observée. Un diyne-1,3 , 3,5-TPDY, a été utilisé dans une application de bioligation, et son utilisation dans une réaction de « click » avec une hydrazine a été montrée. / The thesis is structured around two independent themes. The first concerns the Collins Group's interest in copper-based complexes for photocatalysis. Photocatalysis is a branch of chemistry that aims to unlock reactivities that are difficult to access through thermally-promoted chemistry. While the majority of photocatalytic reactions use ruthenium- or iridium-based catalysts, copper(I) complexes are a valuable alternative, but a deeper understanding of the structure/activity relationship of the complexes is still required. The thesis will describe work to gain a better understanding of the reactivities and behavior of heteroleptic copper(I) complexes possessing a diimine ligand and a diphosphine ligand. The first chapter introduces the concept of photocatalysis and the characteristics of copper-based photocatalysts. A selection of examples of reactions photocatalyzed by copper complexes establishes the state of the art for different types of mechanisms. Chapter 2 presents the study of diimine ligands possessing a π-extended system in copper-based complexes. The corresponding complexes have been studied in 3 different photochemical reactions proceeding through different mechanistic pathways. While the complexes are active in electron and energy transfer reactions, they are not more efficient than previously reported complexes. Chapter 3 is an extension of Chapter 2, in which the π-extended ligands previously reported are modified to form copper complexes with the diphosphine, BINAP. The new complexes are again studied in the 3 different reactions, but their activity is similar to that of the complexes reported in chapter 2. The complexes are also being studied for their anticancer activity, and promising results have been uncovered. Chapter 4 summarizes the study of an extensive library of copper(I)-based complexes for the E→Z isomerization of alkenes. The efficiency of the complexes in the reaction is compared with their photophysical data. An optimal complex is found and used to isomerize a series of 25 different alkenes. The use of continuous flow chemistry also enabled the reactions to be scaled up. Finally, a sequential ATRA/PI process enabled the formation of tri- and tetra-substituted alkenes from alkynes and sulfonyl chlorides. The second theme of the thesis is based on the development of 1,3-diynes for use in strain-promoted "click" reactions. Chapter 6 introduces the concepts of click chemistry and SPAAC, and the state of the art of 1,3-diynes and strained alkynes. Chapter 7 presents the development of a new class of strained 1,3-diynes for the SPAAC reaction called TPDYs. The reaction rates are studied and computational calculations corroborate the observed reactivity. A 1,3-diyne, 3,5-TPDY, is applied to a bioligation process, and its use in a potential new "click" reaction with a hydrazine is shown.

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