Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / O processo de desfolhaÃÃo, composto pela intensidade e frequÃncia, interfere nos padrÃes de crescimento, nas caracterÃsticas estruturais e produtivas das plantas forrageiras. O conhecimento dessas respostas à essencial para a utilizaÃÃo da planta forrageira em pastagens. Esse estudo foi conduzido com o objetivo de avaliar as caracterÃsticas estruturais e produtivas em capim-tifton 85 sob efeitos de duas frequÃncias e duas intensidades de desfolhaÃÃo, manejado sob lotaÃÃo rotativa com ovinos. O experimento foi conduzido no NÃcleo de Ensino e Estudos em Forragicultura â NEEF/DZ/CCA/UFC, Fortaleza, CearÃ, de marÃo a dezembro de 2015, em uma Ãrea com capim-tifton 85. Os tratamentos corresponderam a combinaÃÃes entre duas frequÃncias (85 e 95% de interceptaÃÃo da radiaÃÃo fotossinteticamente ativa - IRFA) e duas intensidades de desfolhaÃÃo (1,0 e 1,8 de Ãndice de Ãrea foliar residual - IAFr), alocadas Ãs unidades experimentais segundo arranjo fatorial 2x2 e delineamento inteiramente casualizado, com quatro repetiÃÃes, totalizando 16 unidades experimentais de 40 m2. O pastejo foi realizado por ovinos da raÃa Morada Nova, manejados sob lotaÃÃo rotativa utilizando a tÃcnica de mob-stocking. As avaliaÃÃes de IRFA e IAF foram feitas com o aparelho analisador PAR-LAI em agricultura modelo AccuPAR LP-80. Foram avaliadas no pÃs e prÃ-pastejo as seguintes variÃveis: interceptaÃÃo da radiaÃÃo fotossinteticamente ativa, Ãndice de Ãrea foliar, altura do dossel e a densidade populacional de perfilhos. Avaliou-se tambÃm a biomassa de forragem total residual e de seus componentes e o acÃmulo de forragem total e de seus componentes. Verificou-se menor (P<0,05) perÃodo de descanso nos pastos sob manejo 85x1,8 e o maior nos pastos com 95x1,0. A altura residual foi superior (P<0,05) nos pastos sob manejo 95x1,0 e 85x1,8 comparados Ãqueles sob manejo 85x1,0. Os pastos com freqÃÃncia 95% de IRFA tiveram altura prÃ-pastejo maior (P<0,05) do que nos pastos com 85% de IRFA. Houve reduÃÃo (P<0,05) na populaÃÃo de perfilhos totais e aÃreos prÃ-pastejo nos pastos manejados com 95% de IRFA e com IAFr de 1,0. O acÃmulo de lÃmina foliar verde foi maior (P<0,05) nos pastos manejados com 95x1,0, contudo tambÃm houve maior (P<0,05) acÃmulo de colmo verde e de forragem morta nestes pastos comparado ao tratamento 85x1,0. O capim-tifton 85 manejado sob frequÃncia de 85% IRFA e IAFr de 1,0 apresentou estrutura e composiÃÃo morfolÃgica mais adequadas para pastejo por ovinos. / The process of defoliation, composed of intensity and frequency, interfere in the growth pattern, the structural and productive characteristics of forage crops. Knowledge of these answers is essential to the use of grasses in pastures. This study was conducted to evaluate the structural and productive characteristics on Tifton 85 grass under two frequencies and two intensities of defoliation, managed under intermitente stocking with sheep. The experiment was conducted at NÃcleo de Ensino e Estudo em Forragicultura â NEEF/DZ/CCA/UFC, Fortaleza, Ceara, from March to December of 2015, in a area of Tifton 85 grass. The treatments were combinations between two frequencies (85 and 95% of interception of photosynthetically active radiation - IPAR) and two intensities of defoliation (1.0 and 1.8 of residual leaf area index - LAI), in a 2x2 factorial arrangement and a completely randomized design, with four replications, totaling 16 experimental units of 40 mÂ. The grazing was carried out by Morada Nova sheep, managed under intermittent stocking using the mob- stocking technique. For IPAR and LAI evaluations a canopy analyzer equipment was used - AccuPAR LP-80 (DECAGON Device). The following variables were evaluated in the post and pre-grazing: interception of photosynthetically active radiation, leaf area index, canopy height and tiller density. It was evaluated also the total residual forage biomass and its components and the total accumulation of forage and its components. It has been found lower (P<0,05) rest period in pastures under management 85x1.8 and higher in pastures with 95x1.0. The residual height was higher (P<0,05) in pastures under 95x1.0 and 85x1.8 management compared to those under 85x1.0 management. Pastures with frequency 95% of IPAR had higher pre-grazing height (P<0,05) than pastures with 85% of IPAR. There was a reduction (P<0,05) in the total and aerial tiller population pre-grazing in the pastures managed with 95% of IPAR and residual LAI 1,0. The green leaf blade accumulation was higher (P<0,05) in pastures managed under 95x1.0, however, there was also greater (P<0,05) accumulation of green stem and dead forage in these pastures compared to 85x1.0 treatment. Tifton 85 grass managed under 85% IPAR and residual LAI 1.0 presented better structure and morphological composition for grazing with sheep.

A natureza e a magnitude das respostas morfogênicas em plantas forrageiras variam com a disponibilidade de fatores climáticos de crescimento e com as metas de manejo utilizadas, modificando as características estruturais do dossel forrageiro. Nesse cenário, intensidades de desfolhação determinam alterações de forma e função nas plantas forrageiras que, por sua vez, definem e caracterizam estratégias de crescimento e perenização e a resistência das plantas ao pastejo. O objetivo deste estudo foi descrever e caracterizar as respostas morfogênicas e as características morfológicas do amendoim forrageiro (Arachis pintoi cv. Belmonte) submetido a intensidades de pastejo sob lotação contínua de janeiro de 2013 a março de 2014. Os tratamentos corresponderam a quatro níveis de intensidade de pastejo (severo - S, moderado - M, leniente - L, e muito leniente - ML) representados pelas alturas de pasto de 5, 10, 15 e 20 cm, e foram alocados às unidades experimentais (piquetes de 210 m2) segundo um delineamento de blocos completos casualizados, com 4 repetições. Foram identificados dez estágios de desenvolvimento das folhas de amendoim forrageiro que foram utilizados como referência para a realização das avaliações das respostas morfogênicas. Os folíolos apresentaram simetria dentro dos pares, não havendo a necessidade de mensuração dos quatro folíolos, apenas de um dos folíolos de cada par. A relação relativamente estável entre comprimento e largura dos folíolos permitiu que a área foliar fosse calculada de forma direta desde que um fator de correção (0,71) para a forma elíptica dos folíolos fosse utilizado. Estratégias distintas de crescimento foram utilizadas pelo amendoim forrageiro ao longo do ano. Estas foram caracterizadas por uma relação inversa entre as variáveis indicadoras de tamanho das plantas (comprimento do estolão, comprimento médio entre nós, entre pontos de crescimento e de enraizamento) e aquelas indicadoras de número de indivíduos (densidade de estolões, de nós, de pontos de crescimento e de pontos de enraizamento), com as maiores diferenças registradas nos pastos submetidos aos tratamentos L e VL. De forma geral, o aumento nas variáveis indicadoras de tamanho esteve associado com a diminuição daquelas indicadoras de número de indivíduos. Essa relação parece descrever um processo de segmentação das plantas caracterizado pela formação de unidades menores e autônomas durante o outono que voltam a aumentar de tamanho durante a primavera e verão. Esse processo viabiliza a reprodução clonal das plantas e contribui para a persistência da espécie na área. Pastos submetidos aos tratamentos S e M apresentaram maior taxa de aparecimento de folhas, menor filocrono e menor tamanho final de folhas que pastos submetidos aos tratamentos L e ML. Esse padrão de crescimento resultou em valores relativamente estáveis de IAF para as intensidades de pastejo. O IAF dos pastos variou apenas com a época do ano, refletindo a estacionalidade natural de crescimento das plantas. O amendoim forrageiro apresenta elevada plasticidade fenotípica e capacidade de adaptação ao pastejo, mas é preciso evitar estresses que possam interromper o processo de segmentação durante o outono, uma vez que isso poderia interferir com a perenização das plantas e favorecer o início de processo de degradação da área. / The nature and the magnitude of morphogenetic responses of forage plants vary with the availability of climatic growth factors and with management targets, modifying sward structural characteristics. In this context, defoliation intensity determines changes in plant form and function, which, in turn, define and characterise growth and perennation mechanisms and plant resistance to grazing. The objective of this study was to describe and characterise morphogenetic responses and morphological characteristics of forage peanut (Arachis pintoi cv. Belmonte) subjected to grazing intensities under continuous stocking from January 2013 to March 2014. Treatments corresponded to four levels of grazing intensity (severe - S, moderate - M, lenient - L, and very lenient - VL) represented by the sward management heights of 5, 10, 15 and 20 cm, and were allocated to experimental units (210 m2 paddocks) according to a complete randomised block design with four replications. Ten stages of leaf development were identified and used as reference for evaluations of plant morphogenetic responses. Leaflets were symmetrical within pairs, indicating the possibility of measuring leaf expansion in just one leaflet of each pair. The relatively stable leaflet length:width ratio allowed direct calculations of leaf area since a correction factor (0.71) for the elliptical form of the leaflets was used. Forage peanut used different growth mechanisms throughout the year. These were characterised by an inverse relationship between plant size (stolon length, internode length, distance between growing points and between rooting points) and plant number (stolon density, node density, growing point density and rooting point density), with greater differences recorded on swards subjected to treatments L and VL. In general, the increase in plant size was associated with a reduction in plant number. This relationship seems to describe a plant segmentation process that results in small autonomous units during autumn, that increase again in size during spring and summer. This process ensures plant clonal reproduction and favours persistence. Swards subjected to treatments S and M showed higher rates if leaf appearance, smaller phyllochron and smaller leaves than swards subjected to treatments L and VL. This resulted in LAI values relatively stable across treatments. LAI values varied only with season of the year, reflecting the seasonality of plant growth. Forage peanut is highly phenotypically plasticand adaptated to grazing, but stresses may interrupt the segmentation process during autumn, and this may interfere with plant perennation and favour the beginning of a degradation process.

A relação entre o microclima e a vegetação tem sido explorada sob os mais variados pontos de vista. Raros são os trabalhos deste tipo, que consideram mais de um tipo de floresta, e em situação natural. Este trabalho avalia de forma detalhada a temperatura do ar, e sua relação com a estrutura da vegetação da maior Unidade de Conservação particular do País, a RPPN SESC Pantanal. Esta Unidade de Conservação se localiza em uma área continental tropical de grande importância para a conservação biológica, o Pantanal de Mato Grosso no centro-oeste do Brasil. Foi mensurada a estrutura de cinco formações florestais (Cambarazal, Mata com Acuri, Mata Densa, Tabocal e Mata Seca) e uma savânica (Campo com Murundus). Com uso de sensores de temperatura acoplados a data loggers e instalados dentro das formações, realizou-se comparações com um campo aberto, que funcionou como controle durante toda a amostragem. Para testar a influência da estrutura da vegetação no microclima, foram realizadas cinco regressões lineares múltiplas, onde a variável dependente era a diferença da temperatura registrada em campo aberto (delta) e de 36 unidades amostrais (6 por formação). Como variáveis preditivas foram empregados dados estruturais levantados nas mesmas. Foram observadas diferenças estruturais significativas entre as seis formações. Através dos dados de vegetação e de temperatura foi possível separar as formações vegetais em três grupos distintos; o das formações semi-abertas (Campo com Murundus, Tabocal e Mata Seca), abertas (campo aberto usado como controle dos dados meteorológicos) e das formações fechadas com coberturas de dosséis densos (Cambarazal, Mata com Acuri e Mata Densa). Foram encontradas diferenças térmicas superiores a 10ºC para todas as formações em relação ao campo aberto (exceto Campo com Murundu). As maiores diferenças foram registradas nos períodos de aquecimento e resfriamento dos dias. A explicação para isto está na grande velocidade de incremento e perda de calor do campo frente às demais formações que apresentaram maior estabilidade térmica. As regressões múltiplas revelaram um poder de explicação entre 43,3 e % e 63,8% e revelaram que o índice de área foliar (LAI) como a variável preditiva mais importantes para variações térmicas. / The relation between microclimate and vegetation has been explored under the most varied points of view. However, studies that consider more than one type of forest are rare, mainly in natural situation. This study evaluates in detail the air temperature and its relation to the vegetation structure of the largest Private Reserve of the Natural Wealth owned by de Social Service of Commerce, the RPPN SESC Pantanal. It is located in a tropical continental area of great importance for biological conservation, the Pantanal of Mato Grosso in mid-west of Brazil. The structure of five types of forest formations (Cambarazal, Mata com Acuri, Mata Densa, Tabocal e Mata Seca) and one savanna (Campo com Murundus) was measured. Temperature sensors coupled to data loggers were installed inside each of the vegetal formations as well as one station at open field to be used as control. To test influence of vegetation structure on microclimate, five multiple linear regressions were performed. The response variable was the temperature difference between recorded in open field and each of the 36 sampling units (6 by formation). Predictive variables were structural data verified at the same places. The difference in vegetation structure between the six types of vegetation was significant. The analysis of vegetation and temperature data allowed to distinguish the vegetal formations in three distinct groups: partialy open (Campo com Murundus, Tabocal e Mata Seca); open areas (open field); closed formations (Cambarazal, Mata com Acuri e Mata Densa). Thermal differences greater than 10°C were found for all vegetal formations when compared to open field (except for Campo com Murundu). The largest differences were recorded during the daily periods of warming (morning) and cooling (afternoon). The reason is the high speed of increment and loss of heat in open field relative to the other formations that showed higher thermal stability. The multiple regressions revealed a power of explanation between 43,3% and 63,8% and revealed the leaf area index (LAI) as the most important predictive variable to the thermal variations.

Submitted by (edna.saturno@ufrpe.br) on 2017-04-11T12:30:28Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Felipe de Araujo Cabral.pdf: 2248759 bytes, checksum: f9bf08b2148a000ef1b3ba7f763e95db (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-04-11T12:30:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Felipe de Araujo Cabral.pdf: 2248759 bytes, checksum: f9bf08b2148a000ef1b3ba7f763e95db (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-01-31 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / The aim of this study was to evaluate the biomass, chemical composition of the fodder and litter, Morphophysiological response of the plant at different distances from the trees in silvopastoral systems and compare this system with the monoculture (full sun) Zona da Mata of PE. The treatments were: association of Brachiaria decumbens pasture with the following tree legumes: “Sabiá” (Mimosa caesalpiniifolia I.) and gliricidia [Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp] and two additional treatments B. decumbens in the grassy moccultivo being an exclusive without nitrogen fertilization and another formed by grass fertilized with 60 kg N / ha / year. Response variables were measured at 5 different points (0 , 1.3, 2.7, 4.1 and 5.5 m away from the tree legume row), and randomly in monoculture system. The following responses were measured: percentage of litter, stem, leaf, canopy height, leaf area index (LAI), light interception (LI), herbage mass, N concentration in Brachiaria decumbens, SPAD index, litter mass, litter N, and soil fertility. Triple interaction (distance x grazing cycle x species) occurred for percentage of leaf litter, litter N, and light interception. The remaining variables showed interaction between distance x grazing cycle, except for the percentage of litter that showed significant differences (P <0.05) only among grazing cycles. Soil fertility did not differ (P < 0.05). Generally, there was an increase in the values of canopy height, LAI and LI with increasing distance from trees. Forage and litter N as well as SPAD index were higher near the tree double rows. In different periods of evaluation shows the contrast (P = 0.0001) than in silvopastoral systems N content in Brachiaria decumbens was higher when compared to monoculture with and without fertilizer, except in September 2010 and February 2011, Brachiaria decumbens in monoculture receiving N fertilization showed higher concentrations of N (1.02 and 1.7%, respectively) compared to silvopastoral system; Brachiaria intercropped with ‘Sabiá’ showed 0.9 and 1.64% for the months of September 2010 and February 2011, respectively. In silvopastoral system, there are influences of the tree component on most of the characteristics of the pasture according to the distance from the row of trees. The presence of trees in silvopastoral system promotes greater deposition of N via litter may contribute to long-term sustainability of the system. / O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a biomassa, teor de N da forragem e da serrapilheira, resposta morfofisiológica da planta, em diferentes distâncias das árvores dentro dos sistemas silvopastoris e comparar esse sistema com o sistema de monocultivo (a pleno sol) na Zona da Mata de PE. Os tratamentos experimentais consistiram na associação da gramínea Brachiaria decumbens Stapf. com as leguminosas sabiá (Mimosa caesalpiniifolia Benth) e gliricídia [Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp] e mais dois tratamentos da B. decumbens em monocultivo sendo um a gramínea exclusiva sem adubação nitrogenada e outro formado pela gramínea adubada com 60 kg N/ha/ano. As amostragens foram realizadas na fila dupla de leguminosas arbóreas e em quatro diferentes pontos que se distanciavam da fileira dupla das leguminosas, ou seja, 1,375; 2,75; 4,125 e 5,5 m, e de forma aleatória em sistema de monocultivo. Foram avaliadas as seguintes variáveis: porcentagem de material morto e de folha, altura do dossel, Índice de Área Foliar (IAF), índice SPAD, massa de forragem, teor de N na Brachiaria decumbens, teor de N da serrapilheira. Os teores de N na forragem foram menores a 5,5 m de distância das árvores, variando entre os diferentes períodos de avaliação entre 1 a 1,63%. A maior massa de forragem foi de 8376 kg MS/ha verificada a 4,125 m das árvores. Nos diferentes períodos de avaliação o contraste mostra (P=0,0001) que em sistemas silvipastoril o teor de N na Brachiaria decumbens foi maior, quando comparado ao monocultivo com e sem adubação, com exceção dos meses de setembro de 2010 e fevereiro de 2011 onde a Brachiaria decumbens em monocultivo, recebendo adubação nitrogenada, apresentou maiores teores de N, sendo de 1,02 e 1,7%, respectivamente, quando comparado ao sistema silvipastoril apenas no tratamento da gramínea consorciada com o Sabiá, que apresentou 0,9 e 1,64 % nos meses de setembro de 2010 e fevereiro de 2011, respectivamente. O menor teor de N na serrapilheira observado em sistema silvipastoril foi ao mês de maio de 2011, onde tanto o consórcio com a Gliricidia quanto a Sabiá em Ssp apresentaram 1% no teor de N na serrapilheira. Em sistema silvipastoril há influência do componente arbóreo sobre a maioria das características do pasto, conforme o distanciamento da fileira das árvores. A presença de árvores em sistema silvipastoril promove uma maior deposição de N via serrapilheira, podendo, a longo prazo contribuir para sustentabilidade do sistema. A fração leve da matéria orgânica, em monocultivo, foi menor em 62, 68 e 53% da observada em sistema silvipastoril para as profundidades 0-10, 10-20 e 20-40 cm, respectivamente.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-08-20T14:38:45Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 dissertacao_otavio_matos_tavares.pdf: 665334 bytes, checksum: 9d1b76916bd06ebd657d489b448639b6 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-06-29 / The experiment, divided into two phases (Phase I and Phase II), had as its objective to evaluate forage production of annual ryegrass (Estanzuela LE 284) of natural reseeding subjected to nitrogen fertilization in the succession of a soybean crop in crop-livestock integration and the residual effect of fertilization on the production of corn grains (crop successor). Treatments of Phase I consisted of four levels of nitrogen fertilization (urea 45%) of coverage (N0 = 0 kg/ha de N, N1 = 22,5 kg/ha de N, N2= 67,5 kg/ha de N e N3 = 135 kg/ha de N) and two levels base fertilization (B1= no fertilization; B2= with fertilization in the order of 170 kg/ha of the formula 05-25-25). The pasture was managed by cutes in accordance with its height. Each time the pasture reached the average canopy height from 20-25 cm, two samples (circular cuts - 0,0881 m²) were made leaving a residue of 10-12 cm. During this occasion a sample was collected with a square of 0,04 m² to determine the number of tillers and leaf area index (LAI). The entire profile of the canopy was cut. Phase II consisted of the evaluation of the residual effect of the fertilization treatments of Phase I on the production of corn grains. The base fertilization (NPK) and the application of nitrogen in coverage, significantly increase forage production of annual ryegrass of natural reseeding in soybean stubble in crop-livestock integration. Nitrogen fertilization linearly increase the weight of tillers and leaf blades. The averages of remaining ryegrass straw added to the soybean crop residues meet the appropriate amount for the implementation of the summer crop in the SPD. Nitrogen fertilization presents no residual effect on the crop yield of corn for grain in succession. / O experimento, dividido em duas fases (Fase I e Fase II), teve como objetivo avaliar a produção de forragem de azevém anual (Estanzuela LE 284) de ressemeadura natural na sucessão da cultura da soja submetido à adubação nitrogenada em integração lavoura-pecuária e o efeito residual da adubação na produção de grãos de milho (cultura sucessora). Os tratamentos da Fase I constaram de quatro níveis de adubação nitrogenada (ureia 45%) em cobertura (N0 = 0 kg/ha de N, N1 = 22,5 kg/ha de N, N2= 67,5 kg/ha de N e N3 = 135 kg/ha de N) e dois níveis de adubação de base (B1= sem adubação; B2= com adubação, na ordem de 170 kg/ha da fórmula 05-25-25). O pasto foi manejado por cortes seguindo um protocolo de altura. A cada vez que o pasto atingia altura média do dossel entre 20-25 cm eram efetuadas duas amostragens (cortes) circulares (0,0881 m²), deixando-se um resíduo de 10-12 cm. Na mesma ocasião era coletada uma amostra com um quadro de 0,04 m² para determinação do número de perfilhos e índice de área foliar (IAF), sendo coletado todo o perfil do dossel. A Fase II consistiu da avaliação do efeito residual dos tratamentos de adubação da Fase I sobre a produção de grãos de milho. As adubações de base (NPK) e de nitrogênio em cobertura aumentam a produção de forragem de azevém anual de ressemeadura natural em resteva de soja no sistema de integração lavoura-pecuária. A adubação nitrogenada aumenta de forma linear o peso de perfilhos e de lâminas foliares. As médias da palhada remanescente de azevém somadas aos resíduos da cultura da soja atendem a quantidade adequada para a implantação da lavoura de verão no SPD. A adubação nitrogenada não apresenta efeito residual sobre a cultura do milho para grãos em sucessão.

Eddy-covariance (EC) CO₂ flux data were analysed and annual carbon (C) balances estimated for a four-year period (2004-2007) following clearcut harvesting of a boreal jack pine stand in northern Saskatchewan. The site was a source of C to the atmosphere for all years, with annual net ecosystem productivity (NEP) increasing from -153 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ in 2004 to -63 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ in 2007. This increase was mainly due to gross primary productivity (GPP) increasing significantly from 78 to 200 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ , while ecosystem respiration (R) increased only slightly from 231 to 263 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ over the same period. In the 2006 growing season (GS), a field campaign was conducted to investigate the relationships between monthly destructive measurements of leaf area index (LAI) and daily measurements of the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and photosynthetic capacity (Amax). The latter was derived from 5-day, 16-day, 30-day and annual Michaelis-Menten light response analyses using daytime measurements of NEP and incident photosynthetically active radiation. Digital-camera data were used to evaluate the potential of using the rectilinear-lens vegetation index (RLVI) as a surrogate for NDVI of a young forest stand. Results showed that LAI was linearly related to NDVI and RLVI, which was largely the result of changes in the deciduous vegetation component across the GS. These results indicate that RLVI could be used as a surrogate for NDVI up to a GS maximum LAI of 0.91 m2 m⁻² observed in 2006. Measured mean (± 1 S.D.) GS LAI was 0.67 (± 0.24) m² m⁻² in 2006. LAI accounted for the majority of the variability in Amax at the 30-day time scale, while at shorter time scales air temperature was the dominant control. For 2004 to 2007, mean spring estimates of LAI were 0.25, 0.29, 0.38 (compared to 0.40 m² m⁻² from measurements) and 0.41 m² m⁻², respectively. Results suggest that a steady increase in the jack pine LAI component accounted for the annual increases in GPP and hence NEP over the four years. / Land and Food Systems, Faculty of / Graduate

The majority of small-scale farmers in the Eastern Cape apply inadequate quantities of manure, inorganic (NPK) fertilizer and Gromor as lone fertilizers or tend to mix manure or Gromor with chemical fertilizers for crops, without any scientific basis (Mkile, 2001). Hence this study – aimed at achieving effective and efficient use of chemical fertilizers, manure and Gromor, either as lone fertilizers or mixed with one another, in maize production – was established. A three-year dry land field experiment, arranged in a RCBD with 3 replicates where cattle manure, chemical fertilizer and Gromor were mixed at different ratios – as treatments FM1 (10 percent fertilizer + 90 percent manure); FM2 (25 percent fertilizer + 75 percent manure); FM3 (50 percent fertilizer + 50 percent manure); MAP (100 percent fertilizer); M (100 percent cattle manure); FG1 (10 percent fertilizer + 90 percent Gromor); FG2 (25 percent fertilizer + 75 percent Gromor); FG3 (50 percent fertilizer + 50 percent Gromor); G (100 percent Gromor) and a control (with nothing applied) – was conducted at the Nolukhanyo agricultural project at Bathurst in the Ndlambe Local Municipality. Maize cultivars PAN 6480 and Sahara were used as test crops. Manure, Gromor and soil were analyzed for their nutrient composition. Data recorded involving number of kernels per cob-1, grain and dry matter (DM) yields for the 2010-11, 2011-12 and 2012-13 seasons, and leaf area index (LAI) – were subjected to Genstat Version 14.1 for statistical analysis. Grain yields of PAN 6480 and Sahara recorded in seasons 2010-11, 2011-12 and 2012-13 were significantly higher (p≤0.05) than those of the controls. In 2012-13, PAN 6480 on treatments FG3 and FG1 produced the highest grain yields (5 327 and 5 107kg ha-1) respectively, while in 2010-11 the highest yield was 3 780kg ha-1. In the 2012-13 season, Sahara on F treatment was the highest with 4 553kg ha-1 whilst there were no significant differences in F and M treatments. Dry matter yields of Sahara were higher than those of PAN 6480 in all seasons. The highest Sahara LAI obtained on FM2 was 5.85 in the 2012-13 season, whereas PAN 6480 had LAI of 4.77 on F treatment, followed by FG3 with 4.72 LAI. PAN 6480 number of leaves for 6 plants in m2 and LAI in week 8 of the 2012-13 season had a positive correlation, r2=0.84. PAN 6480 number of kernels and cob length in the same area correlated quite well (r2 =0.91). Chemical fertilizer corrects the imbalances of nutrients inherent in organic manures and increases both maize grain yields and dry matter yields, and also influences number of leaves and LAI. Treatments FG1, FG3 and FM1 of PAN 6480 resulted in high maize grain yields when planted 13 in late November of the 2012-13 growing season and when water in the soil profile was conserved as a result of good rains received prior to planting. Treatments FG1 (10 percent fertilizer + 90 percent Gromor), FG3 (50 percent fertilizer + 50 percent Gromor) of PAN 6480 produced the highest grain yields (5 107kg ha-1 and 5 327kg ha-1 respectively) in the 2012-13 season, whilst FM1 (10 percent fertilizer + 90 percent manure) gave the highest grain yield (of 4 277kg ha-1) for the same cultivar in the 2010-11 season.

Leaf area index (LAI) is a versatile indicator of crop growth that is used to estimate evapotranspiration (ET), monitor nitrogen status, and estimate crop yield. Traditional methods for measuring LAI can be improved using high resolution remote sensing. The aim of this study was to compare approaches for estimating LAI from UAV-derived visible vegetation indices. Coincident ground-based and remotely sensed data were obtained from two irrigated wheat fields and were sampled at a total of 5 events in 2019 and 2020. Ground-based LAI was measured with a ceptometer and remotely sensed images were collected using a consumer-grade UAV. Mosaiced orthophotos were resampled from native (0.06m) spatial resolution to increasingly coarser spatial resolutions up to 3 m by either a direct or ladder resampling method. Visible band color information (RGB) was extracted from the orthophotos at the points that LAI was collected within field and 12 different visible vegetation indices (VVIs) were calculated. Linear regression was performed to evaluate the relationships between wheat LAI and each calculated VVI for all spatial resolutions and resampling methods. Three VVIs, visible atmospherically resistant index (VARI), normalized green-red difference index (NGRDI), and modified green-red vegetation index (MGRVI), estimated LAI equally well (R2= 0.66, 0.66,0.66; RMSE=0.74,0.73,0.73; MAE=0.57,0.56,0.56) when resampled to 3 m spatial resolution with the ladder resampling method. These results demonstrate the potential to remotely estimate LAI using only RGB cameras and consumer grade drones. An additional aim of this study was to evaluate use of a remotely sensed visible vegetation index to characterize the spatial variability of LAI within irrigated wheat fields. Variation of LAI was measured with a ceptometer on random nested grids at two sites with pre-determined management zones in 2019 and 2020. Coincident digital imagery was collected using a consumer-grade unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). A visible atmospherically resistant index (VARI) LAI estimation model was applied to red, green, blue (RGB) UAV imagery using a ladder resampling approach from 0.06 m to 3 m spatial resolution. There was significant within-field spatial and temporal variation of mean LAI. For example, in May at the Grace, ID location measured LAI ranged from 0.21 to 2.58 and in June from 1.68 to 4.15. The relationship of measured and estimated LAI among management zones was strong (R2=0.84), validating the remote sensing approach to characterize LAI differences among management zones. There were statistically significant differences in estimated LAI among zones for all sampling dates (P=0.05). We assumed a minimum difference of 15% between zone LAI and the field mean for justifying variable rate irrigation among zones, a threshold that corresponds with approximately a 10% difference in evapotranspiration rate. Three of the five sampling dates had LAI differences that exceeded the threshold for at least one zone, with all three having mean LAI of less than 2.5. The VARI model for estimating LAI remotely is more effective at identifying LAI differences among management zones at lower LAI. Application of this approach has potential for applications such as estimating evapotranspiration of irrigated fields and delineation of zones for variable rate irrigation.

The global carbon (C) balance is vulnerable to disturbances that alter terrestrial C uptake and loss. Moderate disturbances that kill or defoliate only a subset of canopy trees such as insect defoliation, drought, and age-related senescence are increasing in extent and frequency; yet, little is known about the effect of moderate disturbance on forest production and the mechanisms sustaining or supporting the recovery of the C cycle across a range of moderate disturbance severities. We used a broad plot-scale gradient of upper canopy tree mortality within a large manipulation of forest disturbance to: 1) quantify how aboveground wood net primary production (ANPPw) responds to a range of moderate disturbance severities and; 2) identify the primary mechanisms supporting ANPPw resistance or resilience following moderate disturbance. We found that ANPPw was highly resistant to moderate disturbance, with production levels sustained following the senescence of 9 to > 60 % of the upper canopy tree basal area. As upper canopy gap fraction increased with rising disturbance severity, greater light availability to the subcanopy enhanced leaf-level C uptake and the growth of this formerly light-limited canopy stratum, compensating for upper canopy production losses. As a result, whole-ecosystem production efficiency (ANPPw/LAI) increased at high levels of disturbance severity and leaf area loss. These findings provide a mechanistic explanation for sustained ANPPw across the disturbance gradient, in which the physiological and growth enhancement of undisturbed vegetation was proportional to the level of disturbance severity. Our results have important ecological and management implications, showing that moderate disturbances may minimally alter ecosystem functions such as C storage.

Temperate forests are complex ecosystems that sequester carbon (C) in biomass. C storage is related to ecosystem-scale forest structure, changing over succession, disturbance, and with community composition. We quantified ecosystem biological and physical structure in two forest chronosequences varying in disturbance intensity, and three late successional functional types to examine how multiple structural expressions relate to ecosystem C cycling. We quantified C cycling as wood net primary production (NPP), ecosystem structure as Simpson’s Index, and physical structure as leaf quantity (LAI) and arrangement (rugosity), examining how wood NPP-structure relates to light distribution and use-efficiency. Relationships between structural attributes of biodiversity, LAI, and rugosity differed. Development of rugosity was conserved regardless of disturbance and composition, suggesting optimization of vegetation arrangement over succession. LAI and rugosity showed significant positive productivity trends over succession, particularly within deciduous broadleaf forests, suggesting these measures of structure contain complementary, not redundant, information related to C cycling.