<pre>Bridging the gap between the classical and quantum regimes has consequences not only for fundamental tests of quantum theory, but for the relation between quantum mechanics and gravity. The field of levito-dynamics provides a promising platform for testing the hypotheses of the works investigating these ideas. By manipulating a macroscopic particle's motion to the scale of its ground state wavefunction, levito-dynamics offers insight into the macroscopic-quantum regime.</pre><pre><br></pre><pre>Ardent and promising research has brought the field of levito-dynamics to a state in which these tests are available. Recent work has brought a mesoscopic particle's motion to near the ground state. Several factors of decoherence are limiting efficient testing of these fundamental theories which implies the need for alternative strategies for achieving the same goal. This thesis is concerned with investigating alternative methods that may enable a mesoscopic particle to reach the quantum regime. </pre><pre><br></pre><pre><pre>In this thesis, three theoretical proposals are studied as a means for a mesoscopic particle to reach the quantum regime as well as a detailed study into one of the most important factors of heating and decoherence for optical trapping. The first study of cooling a particle's motion highlights that the rotational degrees of freedom of a levitated symmetric-top particle leads to large harmonic frequencies compared to the translational motion, offering a more accessible ground state temperature after feedback cooling is applied. An analysis of a recent experiment under similar conditions is compared with the theoretical findings and found to be consistent. <br></pre> <pre>The second method of cooling takes advantage of the decades long knowledge of atom trapping and cooling. By coupling a spin-polarized, continuously Doppler cooled atomic gas to a magnetic nanoparticle through the dipole-dipole interaction, motional energy is able to be removed from the nanoparticle. Through this method, the particle is able to reach near its quantum ground state provided the atoms are at a temperature below the nanoparticle ground state temperature and the atom number is sufficiently large.</pre> <pre>The final investigation presents the dynamics of an optically levitated dielectric disk in a Gaussian standing wave. Though few studies have been performed on disks both theoretically and experimentally, our findings show that the stable couplings between the translational and rotational degrees of freedom offer a possibility for cooling several degrees of freedom simultaneously by actively cooling a single degree freedom.</pre></pre>

The condition of fluid flow has been proven to have a significant influence on a wide variety of material processes. In electromagnetic levitation (EML) experiments, the internal flow is driven primarily by electromagnetic forces. In 1-g, the positioning forces are very strong and the internal flows are turbulent. To reduce the flows driven by the levitation field, experiments may be performed in reduced gravity and parabolic flights experiments have been adopted as the support in advance. Tracer particles on the surface of levitated droplets in EML experiment performed by SUPOS have been used to investigate the transition from laminar to turbulent flow. A sample of NiAl3 was electromagnetically levitated in parabolic flight and the laminar-turbulent transition observed from the case was studied in this work. For the sample with clearly visible tracer patterns, the fluid flow has been numerical evaluated with magnetohydrodynamic models and the laminar-turbulent transition happened during the acceleration of the flow, instead of steady state. The Reynolds number at transition was estimated approximately as 860 by the experiment record. The predicted time to transition obtained from the results of simulation showed significant difference (~ up to 300 times) compared with the time obtained from the experiment—0.37s. The discrepancy between numerical and experimental results could not be explained by the proposed hypotheses: geometry, boundary conditions or solid core. The simulations predict that the flow would become turbulent almost instantaneously after the droplet was fully molten. There are important physics shown by the simulation which were not captured.

Acoustic levitation permits the study of droplet dynamics without the effects of surface interactions present in other techniques such as pendant droplet methods. Despite the complexities of the interactions of the acoustic field with the suspended droplet, acoustic levitation provides distinct advantages of controlling morphology of droplets with nanosuspensions post precipitation. Droplet morphology is controlled by vaporization, deformation and agglomeration of nanoparticles, and therefore their respective timescales are important to control the final shape. The balance of forces acting on the droplet, such as the acoustic pressure and surface tension, determine the geometry of the levitated droplet. Thus, the morphology of the resultant structure can be controlled by manipulating the amplitude of the levitator and the fluid properties of the precursor nanosuspensions. The interface area in colloidal nanosuspensions is very large even at low particle concentrations. The effects of the presence of this interface have large influence in the properties of the solution even at low concentrations. This thesis focuses on the dynamics of particle agglomeration in acoustically levitated evaporating nanofluid droplets leading to shell structure formation. These experiments were performed by suspending 500µm droplets in a pressure node of a standing acoustic wave in a levitator and heating them using a carbon dioxide laser. These radiatively heated functional droplets exhibit three distinct stages, namely, pure evaporation, agglomeration and structure formation. The temporal history of the droplet surface temperature shows two inflection points. Morphology and final precipitation structures of levitated droplets are due to competing mechanisms of particle agglomeration, evaporation and shape deformation. This thesis provides iv a detailed analysis for each process and proposes two important timescales for evaporation and agglomeration that determine the final diameter of the structure formed. It is seen that both agglomeration and evaporation timescales are similar functions of acoustic amplitude (sound pressure level), droplet size, viscosity and density. However it is shown that while the agglomeration timescale decreases with initial particle concentration, the evaporation timescale shows the opposite trend. The final normalized diameter hence can be shown to be dependent solely on the ratio of agglomeration to evaporation timescales for all concentrations and acoustic amplitudes. The experiments were conducted with 10nm silica, 20nm silica, 20nm alumina and 50nm alumina solutions. The structures exhibit various aspect ratios (bowls, rings, spheroids) which depend on the ratio of the deformation timescale (tdef) and the agglomeration timescale (tg). For tdef

An induction setup for levitation studies of molten metals was built. The setup was used to levitate and heat stainless steel samples of 2.00 g to 1600 °C and subject them to different atmospheres. Changes in shape and temperature were recorded by video and infrared thermocouple. Oxide films forming on the droplets during levitation were observed. It was possible to notice an immediate surface reaction when the reaction gas was introduced. This reaction is concluded to influence the surface and bulk composition, and therefore have an effect on the shape evolution of the droplet. A more oxidizing atmosphere resulted in a more conical droplet shape; this is thought to be an effect of lowered surface tension and the conically shaped volumetric force caused by the magnetic field. Changes in temperature after the sample is molten are thought to be an effect of changes in emissivity, caused by surface oxidization. Post mortem analysis show a difference in surface morphology for samples subjected to different gases, as well as a difference in amount of oxidization.

The complex multiscale physics of nanoparticle laden functional droplets in a reacting environment is of fundamental and applied significance for a wide variety of applications ranging from thermal sprays to pharmaceutics to modern day combustors using new brands of bio-fuels. Understanding the combustion characteristics of these novel fuels (laden with energetic nanoparticle NP) is pivotal for lowering ignition delay, reducing pollutant emissions and increasing the combustion efficiency in next generation combustors. On the way to understanding the complex dynamics of sprays is to first study the behaviour of an isolated droplet. A single droplet represents a sub-grid unit of spray. In vaporizing functional droplets under high heat flux conditions, the bubble formation inside the droplet represents an unstable system. This may be either through homogenous nucleation at the superheat limit or by dispersed nanoparticle acting as heterogeneous nucleation sites. First it is shown that such self-induced boiling in burning functional pendant droplets can induce severe volumetric shape oscillations in the droplet. Internal pressure build-up due to ebullition activity force ejects bubbles from the droplet domain causing undulations on the droplet surface and oscillations in bulk thereby leading to secondary break-up of the primary droplet. Through experiments, it is established that the degree of droplet deformation depends on the frequency and intensity of these bubble expulsion events. However, in a distinct regime of single isolated bubble growing inside the droplet, pre-ejection transient time is identified by Darrieus-Landau (DL) instability at the evaporative bubble-droplet interface. In this regime the bubble-droplet system behaves as a synchronized driver-driven system with bulk bubble-shape oscillations being imposed on the droplet. However, the agglomeration of suspended anaphase additives modulates the flow structures within the droplet and also influences the bubble inception and growth leading to distinct atomization characteristics. Secondly, the secondary atomization characteristics of burning bi-component (ethanol-water) droplets containing titania nanoparticle (NPs) at both dilute (0.5% and 1% by weight) and dense particle loading rates (PLR: 5% and 7.5 wt. %) are studied experimentally at atmospheric pressure under normal gravity. It is observed that both types of nanofuel droplets undergo distinct modes of secondary break-up that are primarily responsible for transporting particles from the droplet domain to the flame zone. For dilute nanosuspensions, disruptive response is characterized by low intensity atomization modes that cause small-scale localized flame distortion. In contrast, the disruption behavior at dense concentrations is governed by high intensity bubble ejections which result in severe disruption of the flame envelope. The atomization events occur locally at the droplet surface while their cumulative effect is observed globally at the droplet scale. Apart from this, a feedback coupling between two key interacting mechanisms, namely, atomization frequency and particle agglomeration also influence the droplet deformation characteristics by regulating the effective mass fraction of NPs within the droplet. Thus, third part of the study elucidates how the initial NP concentration modulates the relative dominance of these two mechanisms thereby leading to a master-slave configuration. Secondary atomization of novel nanofuels is a crucial process since it enables an effective transport of dispersed NPs to the flame (a pre-requisite condition for NPs to burn). Contrarily, NP agglomeration at the droplet surface leads to shell formation thereby retaining NPs inside the droplet. In particular, it is shown that at dense concentrations shell formation (master process) dominates over secondary atomization (slave) while at dilute particle loading it is the high frequency bubble ejections (master) that disrupt shell formation (slave) through its rupture and continuous out flux of NPs. These results in distinct combustion residues at dilute and dense concentrations, thus, providing a method of manufacturing flame synthesized microstructures with distinct morphologies. Next, it is shown that by using external stimuli (preferential acoustic excitation) the secondary atomization of the droplet can be suppressed i.e. the external flame-acoustic interaction with bubbles inside the droplet results in controlled droplet deformation. Particularly, by exciting the droplet flame in a critical, responsive frequency range i.e. 80 Hz ≤ fP ≤ 120 Hz, the droplet deformation cycle is altered through suppression of self-excited instabilities and intensity/frequency of bubble ejection events. The acoustic tuning also enables the control of bubble dynamics, bulk droplet-shape distortion and final precipitate morphology even in burning nanoparticle laden droplets. Droplets in a non-reacting environment (heated radioactively) are also subject to instabilities. One such instability observed in drying colloidal droplets is the buckling of thin viscoelastic shell formed through consolidation of NPs. In the final part of the thesis, buckling instability driven morphology transition (sphere to ring structure) in an acoustically levitated heated nanosilica dispersion droplet is elucidated using dynamic energy balance. Droplet deformation featuring formation of symmetric cavities is initiated by the capillary pressure that is two to three orders of magnitude greater than acoustic radiation pressure, thus indicating that the standing pressure field has no influence on the buckling front kinetics. With increase in heat flux, the growth rate of surface cavities and their post-buckled volume increases while the buckling time period reduces, thereby altering the buckling pathway and resulting in distinct precipitate structures. Thus, the cavity growth is primarily driven by evaporation. However, irrespective of the heating rate, volumetric droplet deformation exhibits linear time dependence and droplet vaporization is observed to deviate from the classical D2-law. Understanding such transients of buckling phenomenon in drying colloidal suspensions is pivotal for producing new functional microstructures with tenable morphology and is particularly critical for spray drying applications that produce powders through vaporization of colloidal droplets.

<p>  </p> <p>Part I studies the lubricant sprays and droplets in a rotary compressor. Air conditioning (AC) systems are now widely used in residential and commercial environments, while the compressor is the most important element in the AC system, and rotary compressors are often used in split AC appliances, whose number is estimated to reach 3.7 billion in 2050. In a rotary compressor, the lubricant oil atomizes into small droplets due to the differential pressure in and out of the cylinder. Part of the lubricant oil droplets carried by the refrigerant vapor will ultimately exhaust from the compressor through the discharge pipe. The ratio of the discharged oil volume to the total oil volume is characterized as the Oil Discharge Ratio (ODR). High ODR will reduce the reliability of the compressor and deteriorate the heat transfer of the condenser and the evaporator, resulting in decreased efficiency. Thus, controlling the ODR is a key issue for the design of the rotary compressor.</p> <p>In Part I, rotary compressors were modified to provide optical access into its internal space, i.e., the lower cavity (refers to the space between the cylinder and the motor), above the rotor/stator, and at the discharge tube level. The modified rotary compressors’ operation was supported by a test rig which provided a wide range of operating conditions, e.g., pressure and frequency. Thus, in-situ optical measurements, e.g., shadowgraph and holograph, can be performed to visualize the lubricant sprays and droplets in the rotary compressor. An image processing routine containing the Canny operator and Convolutional Neural-Network was developed to identify droplets from high-resolution shadowgraph images, while Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and Optical Flow Velocimetry (OFV) were applied to calculate the spray and droplet’s velocities with time-resolved shadowgraph images. Parallel Four-Step Phase Shifting Holograph (PFSPSH) located the droplets’ positions in a three-dimensional volume under the specific operating condition.</p> <p>Both primary and secondary atomization were observed in the rotary compressor, while primary atomization is the major source of droplet production. The droplet size distributions versus the frequency, vertical direction, radial direction, and pressure are obtained. It is observed that the droplet characteristic mean diameters increase with the frequency and pressure. They also become larger in the outer region above the rotor/stator and keep constant in the radial direction at the discharge tube level. The penetration velocity of the lubricant spray is calculated in the lower cavity. An outward shift of the jet core combined with an outward velocity component was observed. Additionally, horizontal swirling velocity above the rotor/stator and at the discharge tube level and the vertical recirculation velocity above the rotor/stator are characterized. The volume fraction of droplets was also characterized under the specific operating condition. The results provide detailed experimental data to set up the boundary conditions used in CFD. They also show that the droplets in the upper cavity are mostly from the discharge process of the cylinder in the lower cavity. The results support a droplet pathway model in the rotary compressor, which can guide the optimization of future rotary compressors.</p> <p>Evaporation is commonly seen in hydrology, agriculture, combustion, refrigeration, welding, etc. And it always accompanies heat and mass transfer at the liquid-gas interface and is affected by the substance’s properties, the environment’s pressure, temperature, convection, and so on. PFSPSH in Part I aims to retrieve the phase information for holograph reconstruction. Part II further explores the application of the PFSPSH technology in Part I to observe the evaporation process of acetone, where the phase disturbance caused by the vapor is used to reconstruct the vapor concentration in space. The method is called Parallel Four-Step Phase Shifting Interferometer (PFSPSI). The first case studies the evaporation process of the acetone contained in a liquid pool with uniform air flow in a low-speed wind tunnel. The mole fractions of the acetone vapor near the liquid-air interface with different air speeds are characterized. The second case studies the evaporation process of acetone droplets levitated by an ultrasound levitator. The mole fraction of the acetone vapor near the liquid-air interface is characterized by assuming an axisymmetric field and using the analytical solution of the inverse Abel transform. The asymmetric pattern of the acetone vapor field is observed, which is considered due to the drastic sound pressure change at the stand wave location produced by the ultrasound levitator. The mass transfer of the evaporation process by the vapor’s mole fraction is calculated and compared with the mass transfer calculated by the droplet size change. It is observed that the mass transfer by the vapor’s mole fraction is generally smaller than the mass transfer calculated by the droplet size change, which can be explained by the convection process induced by the acoustic streaming.</p>