This study investigates the major factors that have restricted the flow of foreign direct investment (FDI) into the oil sector in Libya. The study focuses on the period from 2000 to 2009. This period is significant since, during this time Libya witnessed dramatic foreign and economic policy changes. The research objectives are: (1) To identify the determinants of foreign direct investment into Libya’s oil industry for the period 2000-2009; (2) To reveal the obstacles and barriers which hinder FDI in Libya’s oil industry; (3) To determine the extent that the Libyan Government FDI policy influenced FDI in Libya’s oil industry. The rationale for this thesis was driven by filling an empirical void of FDI studies on the oil industry in Libya and by the intention of providing practical insights for current and future Libyan governments. This study comprises of an analysis of the 30 multinational (MNCs) oil companies that are operating in the Libyan oil industry through questionnaire and interview data from executives employed by those MNCs, as well as data from ten Libyan senior government officials involved in the Libyan oil industry and/or FDI policies. The research has provided support for several of the determinants of FDI flows traditionally found in the literature. The survey and time series analysis further reveals that access to Libya’s proven oil and gas reserves was the singular most important determinate for influencing the MNCs to undertake FDI. Furthermore, the findings identified that Libyan government foreign policy had some impact on the MNCs decision to undertake FDI. The research findings with regards to the role played by environmental risk as a determinate of FDI, demonstrate that there is no significant relationship between overall levels of environmental risk and a country‘s performance in attracting FDI. Also, this research has identified a number of factors that are causing obstacles and challenges to the attractiveness of Libya as a location for foreign investment. It has revealed that MNCs are significantly dissatisfied by the stability of the public institutions and the lack of effective regulations in Libya.

The intervention in Libya is the best example to date to judge the implementation of the Responsibility to Protect. In 2011, public demonstrations started in Libya seeking political and economic reforms in the country. In return, the Libyan President Maummar Al-Qaddafi threatened mass atrocities in Libya. This allowed the UNSC to sanction the use of force against Qaddafi’s regime in order to protect civilians. First, under resolution 1970 (2011), the UNSC referred the case to the International Criminal Court and applied sanctions. Second, via resolution 1973 (2011), the application of force was approved for the express purpose of “protecting civilians.” This thesis assess whether the military intervention in Libya in 2011 was R2P case. This question is answered by an analysis based upon the UNSC’s Resolutions, Council’s proceedings, and other official documents. / May 2016

Soil salinity and the arid climate in Libya are major constraints in agriculture and predominantly in foodstuff production which are limiting wheat production and yield. The effect of pre-sowing seed treatments with 50 mM of KCl, NaCl, CaCl2, and distilled water as hydropriming on germination and early seedling growth in two wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars S-24 (tolerant) and Slambo (untested before) under 0, 100, 200 and 300 mM NaCl concentrations was examined. CaCl2 was the only priming treatment that significantly improved the germination percentage, germination rate, and mean germination time in both cultivars under almost all NaCl concentrations. Thus, priming with CaCl2 was selected for further experiments. In the greenhouse, seeds primed with 50 mM of CaCl2 also improved the emergence percentage, emergence rate, shoot and root length, and fresh and dry weight of shoots and roots of both cultivars under all NaCl concentration except at 300 mM where the emergence was completely inhibited. The response of wheat cultivars to three compost treatments including cow manure compost (CC), greenwaste compost (GC) and 50:50 mixture (mix) between them and sand at percentage inclusions of 10 and 30 % by weight under 0, 100, 200, and 300 mM of NaCl was also investigated. Among all compost treatments, 30% GC and 30% mix were the best treatment and improved almost all growth parameters under salt stress, and 30% GC was also the only treatment that had any emergence at 300 mM NaCl. 30% GC and 30% mix were selected for further experiments. The effect of the combination of the selected priming agent (CaCl2) and the best two compost treatments (30% GC and 30% mix) on the emergence and early seedling growth of both cultivars was tested. The results showed that all the treatments enhanced plant growth parameters including seedling ion uptake in both cultivars, with preference to primed seeds sown in 30% GC. The treatments had the following order of the performance of both cultivars under salt stress. Primed seeds sown in 30% GC > unprimed seeds sown in 30% GC > primed seeds sown in 30% mix > unprimed seeds sown in 30% mix. This enhancement is possibly due to the provision of Ca2+ and / or the improvement in the availability of water as both of them were improved by the application of priming and compost.

This quantitative research study investigated the impact of organisational context on the process and success of strategic IS planning (SISP) in post-implementation information systems in Libyan organisations. A set of direct and indirect relationships were investigated in the research model. The organisational context presented as a contingent situational variable mediated by SISP process and predicted by SISP success (the criterion variable). The causality of the relationship set was developed from the contingency theory of information systems and supported by fit models in strategic management research. The study deployed multivariate analysis represented in the structural equation modelling (SEM) to develop robust construct measurements and analyse data collected from executives responsible for information systems planning in both public and private Libyan organisations. Multi-dimensional multi-items constructs were used in the path analysis model after they were extensively validated. The path analysis model represented as mediation model, where hypothesise suggest that SISP context has an impact SISP success, through the influence of the SISP process. In the model, four dimensions of the SISP context construct were found to have a significant impact on SISP success directly and indirectly through the SISP process. Two of these dimensions are components of the leadership orientation construct, namely “Creative and Controlling” leadership. The other two dimensions are “Organisation centralisation structure and the Riskiness of organisation strategies”. The environmental uncertainty and planning resource constructs were found to have no impact on SISP success in Libyan organisations. Furthermore, this study validated six out of seven dimensions of SISP process construct measurement; only five exhibited acceptable fit level in the path analysis model and all were affected by the SISP context. However, just three out of five SISP process constructs had an impact on SISP success namely “Comprehensiveness, Focus and Intuition planning process”. Different SISP processes were associated with different levels of SISP success, “Intuition” was the most effective SISP process approach. The second most effective SISP process approach was the “Focus on innovation”, followed by “Limited comprehensiveness”. The SISP success measured by the fulfilment of key objectives that has three measurements constructs namely “Analysis, Alignment, and Cooperation”. The research suggest that under the effect of organisation context the most successful SISP produced by (CIO, CEO, or top executives) who rely less on personal judgment, focus more on innovation rather than control and limit their comprehensiveness of information systems planning process.

The record of American foreign policy in the Middle East between 2001 and 2006 is marked mostly by failures of the Bush Administration to achieve its stated objectives, including reducing terrorism, stopping the spread of weapons of mass destruction, and spreading liberal democracy. Still, there are also notable bright spots, including the case of Libya’s diplomatic rehabilitation. What is it, then, that accounts for this success in the face of so many other failures where the policy goals were markedly similar? I argue that a partial explanation of this discrepancy can be found in the nature of infighting between ideological realists and neoconservatives within the foreign policy bureaucracy. In doing so, process tracing is used to examine policy development toward four country cases: Iraq, Iran, Lebanon, and Libya, with Libya acting as the control. The object of these case studies is to demonstrate existence of a previously undescribed model of bureaucratic infighting, based on competing ideological differences regarding the fundamental direction and conduct of US foreign policy. I call this the Ideological Infighting, or I2, Model. Whereas previous works of US foreign policy analysis have focused only on the roles of individuals’ ideology or on bureaucratic interests, this study unites both. In doing so, it describes the policy effects that result from ideological disagreements within the executive agencies, rather than viewing a presidential administration as an ideologically coherent entity. It also refines understandings of the relationship between the President and his advisors. Finally, although this work deals specifically with the Middle East, the model is generalizable to all areas of US foreign policy.

In a developing oil-based economy like Libya the availability of finance is largely affected by the availability of oil revenues which are subjected to disturbances and shocks. Therefore, the decision to save and invest a certain ratio of the country's aggregate output is, to large extent, determined (and affected) by the shocks in the oil markets rather than the requirements of economic development. In this study an attempt is made to determine the optimal rate of saving and investment, both defined as a ratio of the aggregate output, according to the requirements of economic development. For this purpose, a neo-classical Ramsey-type model for Libya is constructed and applied to obtain theoretically and empirically the optimal saving and investment rate during the period (1965-1991). The results reveal that Libya was investing over the optimal level during the oil boom of 1970s and less than the optimal level during the oil crisis of 1980s. In addition, an econometric investigation of the determinants of actual investment by sector (agriculture, non-oil industry, and services) is carried out in order to shed lights on how possible it is for Libya to adjust actual investment towards its optimal level. It is found that, as expected, the most important factor which can be used in this respect is the oil revenues or, generally, the availability of finance. In addition, the study reveals that investment in agriculture is associated, during the period of study, with a very low marginal productivity of capital whereas marginal productivity was higher in both non-oil industry and services. Finally, the study investigates also the future potential saving and investment rates and concludes that the economy, which has already reached its steady state, can be pushed out towards further growth if the economy can be able to increase the level of per worker human capital, proxied by the secondary school enrolment as a percentage of population.

Paragraphs 138 to 140 of the Outcome Document of the 2005 UN World Summit not only elevated the element of prevention to a prominent place within the principle of “responsibility to protect” (R2P), but also restricted the scope of R2P to four specific crimes under international law: genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. This thesis explores the conceptual and practical consequences of linking R2P to the concept of international crimes, with a particular focus on the preventive dimension of R2P, the socalled “responsibility to prevent”. To date, much of what has been written about the “responsibility to prevent” borrows primarily from conflict prevention theory and practice. Such conflict prevention inspired accounts of the “responsibility to prevent” tend to depict the principle as a long-term agenda that seeks to build societies resilient to atrocity crimes; that rests primarily on pillars one (state responsibility) and two (international assistance and capacity-building); that is supportive rather than undermining of state sovereignty; and that can largely adhere to the traditional conflict prevention principles of impartiality, consent, and minimal coercion should more direct prevention efforts become necessary. Drawing on literature from criminology, this thesis develops an international crimes framework for operationalizing the preventive dimension of R2P. The framework, combined with three case studies of international crime prevention (Bosnia 1991-1995; Kenya 2007-08; and Libya 2011), challenges key assumptions of the conflict prevention accounts, arguing that linking R2P to the concept of international crimes turns the “responsibility to prevent” into a principle that is more focused on the short-term, rather than on so-called root causes of atrocity crimes; more focused on individuals, rather than on state structures and capacity; more partial regarding perpetrators and victims; and more coercive, intrusive, and controversial than is commonly acknowledged in academic writing and policy debates on the subject. More broadly, the thesis concludes that taking R2P’s focus on the prevention of international crimes seriously requires re-rethinking the “responsibility to prevent” in important respects.

If as argued the Mediterranean consisted in Antiquity of a unity determined by similar environmental factors and crises which were mitigated through established networks of trade and exchange, the border regions of the Roman Mediterranean, particularly to the South and East, were characterised by a radically different environment. This thesis focuses on the development of three of the arid regions bordering the ancient Mediterranean, namely the Fazzan oases in the Libyan Sahara, the Eastern Desert of Egypt and the region of Palmyra in Syria. These arid regions have received considerable archaeological attention in recent years, and a review of them will highlight the factors which enabled these regions to interact with the Roman Empire through trading dynamics, but also through the development of local resources. Central questions within this thesis concern the extent to which the environment would have tailored the potential of these regions, and if the existence of trade routes and social networks both affected and were affected by settlement and exploitation patterns in the region. Trade was created by geographically much broader social requirements for foreign or exotic goods, yet was restricted by the possibility to pass through these regions. Developments were conditioned by the constant need for balance between the state as a power enforcing and representing peace and security and local entities, and what the local social organisation had to offer in term of rent and stability to the state as an institution. After an introduction (Chapter 1) delineating the aims of the thesis, Chapter 2 defines influential theories and models that will be considered for this thesis, namely environmental factors, social networks and institutional economics. The archaeological evidence is then discussed in each relevant chapter: Chapter 3: The Libyan Sahara; Chapter 4: The Eastern Desert of Egypt; Chapter 5: Palmyra. Chapter 6 discusses major factors that may work as explanations for the development of agriculture, the exploitation mineral resources, and trade in these regions. The choice of regions both inside and outside the Roman Empire also allows a discussion on the rise of economic activities linked to the imperial economy. As such, the thesis moves away from a romano-centric perspective and proposes to look instead for internal factors, such as the development of complex societies with organisational frameworks and social networks which enable them to overcome the challenges of their geo-climatic settings. This study concludes that the developments identified in each chapter were not a factor of environmental changes but human agency. The state, or private individuals or communities successfully organised the resources necessary to integrate the regions into wider networks of intense trade in the imperial period. These concerned both physical infrastructure, and the development of far-reaching social networks.

La plupart des études modernes tendent à analyser l’histoire de la société libyenne selon un schéma qui réduit la vie sociale et économique de la Libye au nomadisme et aux rapports tribaux ou bien à la pratique de l’agriculture pastorale et au commerce du transit ; à cela se rajoute une activité corsaire exercée dans les villes côtières. Par conséquent, cette vision de l’histoire du pays est réduite à deux interprétations. Tandis que la première se rapporte strictement à l’histoire interne, la deuxième est liée aux facteurs externes ; toutefois les deux ne sont que très rarement liés. En revanche, l’objectif de notre thèse vise à prendre en compte l’ensemble des facteurs tant internes qu’externes de l’histoire de la ville de Tripoli et de ses arrière-pays sans oublier qu’il s’inscrit dans l’histoire méditerranéenne et ottomane afin d’étudier tous les aspects de l’histoire sociale et économique de la Tripolitaine via la classe marchande de l’Iyālat Ṭarābulus al-Gharb. Les sources locales tels les registres des tribunaux sharî‘a à Tripoli, le journal du commerçant Ḥasan al-Faqīh Ḥasan mais aussi européennes, notamment, les rapports des consuls français et livournais nous dévoilent les détails d’unesynergie des réseaux économiques et sociaux, nous donnant tout un autre aspect de l’histoire libyenne. / Most studies on the modern history of Libya and its society tend to limit their scope to a schema that reduces the social and economic life of Libya to nomadic and tribal relations or to the practice of pastoral agriculture and transit trade; corsair activity exercised on the coastal cities is also a focus. Consequently, this vision of the country’s history is reduced to twointerpretations. While the first relates strictly to the internal history of the area, the second refers exclusively to the external factor; only rarely are both aspects analyzed together. Keeping this in mind, our dissertation takes into account both internal and external elements related to the history of the city of Tripoli and its hinterlands as well as the fact that it is partand parcel of Mediterranean and Ottoman history, aiming thereby to study all the aspects which compose the social and economic history of the Tripolitain via the merchant class of Iyālat Ṭarābulus al-Gharb. Local sources such as the registers from the Tripoli Ottoman-era sharî‘a court along with entries from the journal of the Tripoli businessman Ḥasan al-FaqīhḤasan in addition to European consular reports, in particular, those from the French consuls as well as the Livorno consular reports reveal a synergy of economic and social networks which show an entirely new aspect of Libyan history.

Cette recherche porte sur la "violence faites aux femmes" en Libye, et plus précisément à Tripoli. Depuis plusieurs années, cette question est interrogée sur les scènes nationale et internationale, donnant lieu à l'adoption de plusieurs textes législatifs. Pourtant, malgré cela, les crimes sexistes continuent de se pratiquer dans les pays développés mais aussi et plus particulièrement dans les pays pauvres. Afin d’étudier le lien entre ces violences et l"état de sous-développement, cette thèse présentera dans une première partie, le champ théorique de l'enquête avant d’expliquer, dans une seconde partie, les particularités du terrain d'enquête, à savoir la société libyenne. Les données concernant les conditions d’existences des femmes, et la législation touchant leur statut permettront, dans le cadre d'une troisième partie, d'analyser les résultats obtenus à un questionnaire soumis à un panel de 45 hommes condamnés ou en attente de jugement, pour le commission d'actes de violence envers les femmes. / This research concerns the "violence against women" committed in Libya. For years, this question has been asked on the national and international scene, resulting in the adoption of several law. Yet, despite this, gender-based crimes continue to be practiced in developed countries but also and especially in poor countries. To investigate the link between the violence and the state of underdevelopment, this thesis will present, in a first part, the theorical scope of the study before, in a second part, explaining the characteristics of the field survey : the Liban society. The data concerning the liffe conditions of women, and legislations affecting their will, in the third part, permit to analyse the results to a questionnaire sent to a panel of 45 men, convicted or awaiting judgement for the commission of acts of violence again women.