Dans cette thèse, nous nous intéressons à la résolution de problèmes de détection et de suivi d'objets mobiles multiples sur route, à partir de données télémétrique de type lidar à balayage. Les travaux dans le domaine de la détection et de suivi d'obstacles à partir de données lidar mettent généralement en oeure trois principales étapes : la détection, l'association de mesures et le filtrage. Cependant, il est connu que cette chaîne de traitement peut engendrer des pertes d'informations pouvant être à l'origine de cas de non détection ou de fausse alarme. Par ailleurs, les non-linéarités liées à la transformation polaire-cartésien des mesures lidar au cours de l'étape de détection ne permettent plus de préserver la statistique des bruits de mesure après traitement. Une autre difficulté, compte tenu de la nature spatialement distribuée des mesures lidar liées à un objet, est de pouvoir associer chaque impact à un unique véhicule tout en prenant en compte la variabilité temporelle du nombre d'impacts à lui associer. Seule une approche exploitant les données brutes permet de garantir l'optimalité de la chaîne de traitement. Cette thèse explore une nouvelle approche conjointe de détection et de suivi exploitant les données brutes du lidar, éliminant toute étape de pré-détection. L'approche proposé repose, d'une part, sur l'usage des méthodes de Monte Carlo séquentielles en raison de leur aptitude à traiter des modèles fortement non linéaire, , et, d'autre part, sur une modélisation des ojets compatible avec la perception lidar. La méthode est validée avec des données du simulateur SIVIC dans différentes situations expérimentales pour la détection et le suivi d'objets hétérogènes dans un cas lidar monoplan puis multiplan. / This thesis focus on the problem of multiobject detection and tracking multiple moving objects on the road, using a scanning laser rangefinder. The works in the field of obstacle detection and tracking from lidar data generally use three main stages : detection, measurement association and filtering. However, it is known that this processing chain can lead to a loss of information that may be reponsible for non-detection or false alarm problems. Furthermore, the non-linearities associated to the polar-to-Cartesian transformation of lidar measurements during the detection step cannot preserve the statistical properties of the measurement noise. Another difficulty, related to the spatially distributed nature of a lidar measurements of an object, is to associate each impact with a single vehicle while taking into account the temporal variability of the number of impacts. An approach that only exploits the raw data ensures the optimality of the processing chain. This thesis explores a new joint approach for detection and tracking that uses raw lidar data, while eliminating any step of predetection. The proposed approach is based, first, on the use of sequential Monte Carlo methods due to their ability to deal with highly non-linear models, and secondly, on an object modeling related to lidar measure. The method is validated with data from the simulator SIVIC under different experimental conditions for the detection and tracking of heterogeneous objects with monolayer and multilayer lidar.

O LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) vem-se consolidando como tecnologia de mapeamento, contribuindo com a ciência da informação geográfica. Este trabalho fez uma revisão do estado da arte da tecnologia LiDAR aerotransportado ou ALS (Airborne Laser Scanner), em constante mudança e aperfeiçoamento, no que diz respeito aos sistemas sensores e a estrutura de armazenamento das informações adquiridas. Inicialmente foi apresentado um panorama da utilização do LiDAR aerotransportado na produção de modelos digitais de elevação, em levantamentos de linhas de transmissão, no setor de transportes, e foi dada ênfase à tarefa de extração da vegetação e de edificações, detectando também o solo exposto. Para a extração de edificações, foram apresentados diversos conceitos desenvolvidos nos últimos quatro anos. Na parte prática foi utilizada uma região de teste para comparar feições urbanas obtidas pela classificação automática, realizada pelo software TerraScan, com feições homólogas provenientes de uma base cartográfica de referência, mostrando convergências e divergências entre os dois produtos. Foi realizada uma análise de declividade para determinação de bordas das edificações e, com isso, realizar a segmentação dessas feições. Foi realizado um controle de qualidade cartográfica do produto LiDAR que pudesse classificar esse produto quanto ao padrão de exatidão cartográfica digital. O produto obtido pelo LiDAR atendeu às classes B, C e D da nova norma brasileira a partir da escala 1:10.000. Também foi proposto e realizado o controle de qualidade altimétrico a partir das curvas de nível do produto cartográfico de referência. Recomenda-se a utilização cuidadosa desse produto em função da escala do mapeamento e das necessidades do usuário. / LiDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) has been consolidated as a mapping technology, contributing to the science of geographic information. This paper reviewed the state of the art of the LiDAR airborne technology or ALS (Airborne Laser Scanner), in constant change and improvement, with respect to the sensors and systems structure for storing acquired information. Initially, an overview was presented regarding the use of airborne LiDAR in producing digital elevation models, in surveys of transmission lines and the transportation sector. Emphasis was given to the task of extracting vegetation and buildings, also detecting the exposed soil. For the extraction of buildings, many concepts developed over the past four years were presented. In the practical part, a region test was used to compare the urban features obtained by the automatic classification performed by TerraScan software, with corresponding features from a cartographic reference product, showing similarities and differences between them. An analysis to determine the slope of the edges of the buildings was accomplished and, therefore, the segmentation of these features. The quality control of cartographic LiDAR product was performed in order to classify this product as the standard for digital cartographic accuracy. The product obtained by LiDAR met classes B, C and D of the new Brazilian standard in the 1:10,000 scale. Quality control of altimetry from the curves of the cartographic reference product level was also proposed and performed. We recommend the careful use of the product depending on the scale of the mapping and on users needs.

This thesis reviews algorithms that have been developed for classifying lidar data and identifies a progressive morphological filter for evaluation and improvement. Two potential weaknesses evaluated include the row-column order bias and grid orientation bias. Four different row-column orderings were developed to test for bias associated with the order choice. Moreover, a method rotating the filter grid to a series of angles was developed for testing bias associated with grid orientation. Measures of success of the improvements include Type I and II errors, where results are compared with a hand-produced "truth" dataset. Two datasets, one urban, the other rural, were selected for testing the modified filters. The results are presented and discussed for each algorithm. It was found that the four row-column orders all classified the dataset exactly the same. After the erosion and dilation functions were completed, the same surface profiles and elevations were produced regardless of row-column ordering. The filter windows used by the algorithm were found to create a rectangular area where the minimum and maximum values within that area were always selected. Therefore, it was found that the row-column orders did not create a bias in the classification. However, grid orientation was found to greatly affect results. Misclassification problems occurred at ridgelines, mounds, and along roads with ditches and steep slopes running along them. Grid angles running parallel to these objects were found to avoid these errors. Buildings also created errors, but were minimized with grid angles crossing them at 45 degrees. The selected angle directions significantly affect the classification results in all cases. Therefore, the grid orientation bias was verified. Two new methods of combining the results from the various angles have been developed. The first method used the best two classifying angles to combine the results. Best results were found in datasets with terrain objects positioned in similar directions for this method. The Multiple Angle method used all of the angle classifications to combine the results. This method performed best on datasets with terrain objects oriented in numerous directions. More accurate terrain models and better overall classification results have been generated using these methods.

The Arctic is a particularly sensitive area with respect to climate change due to the high surface albedo of snow and ice and the extreme radiative conditions. Clouds and aerosols as parts of the Arctic atmosphere play an important role in the radiation budget, which is, as yet, poorly quantified and understood. The LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) measurements presented in this PhD thesis contribute with continuous altitude resolved aerosol profiles to the understanding of occurrence and characteristics of aerosol layers above Ny-Ålesund, Spitsbergen. The attention was turned to the analysis of periods with high aerosol load. As the Arctic spring troposphere exhibits maximum aerosol optical depths (AODs) each year, March and April of both the years 2007 and 2009 were analyzed. Furthermore, stratospheric aerosol layers of volcanic origin were analyzed for several months, subsequently to the eruptions of the Kasatochi and Sarychev volcanoes in summer 2008 and 2009, respectively. The Koldewey Aerosol Raman LIDAR (KARL) is an instrument for the active remote sensing of atmospheric parameters using pulsed laser radiation. It is operated at the AWIPEV research base and was fundamentally upgraded within the framework of this PhD project. It is now equipped with a new telescope mirror and new detection optics, which facilitate atmospheric profiling from 450m above sea level up to the mid-stratosphere. KARL provides highly resolved profiles of the scattering characteristics of aerosol and cloud particles (backscattering, extinction and depolarization) as well as water vapor profiles within the lower troposphere. Combination of KARL data with data from other instruments on site, namely radiosondes, sun photometer, Micro Pulse LIDAR, and tethersonde system, resulted in a comprehensive data set of scattering phenomena in the Arctic atmosphere. The two spring periods March and April 2007 and 2009 were at first analyzed based on meteorological parameters, like local temperature and relative humidity profiles as well as large scale pressure patterns and air mass origin regions. Here, it was not possible to find a clear correlation between enhanced AOD and air mass origin. However, in a comparison of two cloud free periods in March 2007 and April 2009, large AOD values in 2009 coincided with air mass transport through the central Arctic. This suggests the occurrence of aerosol transformation processes during the aerosol transport to Ny-Ålesund. Measurements on 4 April 2009 revealed maximum AOD values of up to 0.12 and aerosol size distributions changing with altitude. This and other performed case studies suggest the differentiation between three aerosol event types and their origin: Vertically limited aerosol layers in dry air, highly variable hygroscopic boundary layer aerosols and enhanced aerosol load across wide portions of the troposphere. For the spring period 2007, the available KARL data were statistically analyzed using a characterization scheme, which is based on optical characteristics of the scattering particles. The scheme was validated using several case studies. Volcanic eruptions in the northern hemisphere in August 2008 and June 2009 arose the opportunity to analyze volcanic aerosol layers within the stratosphere. The rate of stratospheric AOD change was similar within both years with maximum values above 0.1 about three to five weeks after the respective eruption. In both years, the stratospheric AOD persisted at higher rates than usual until the measurements were stopped in late September due to technical reasons. In 2008, up to three aerosol layers were detected, the layer structure in 2009 was characterized by up to six distinct and thin layers which smeared out to one broad layer after about two months. The lowermost aerosol layer was continuously detected at the tropopause altitude. Three case studies were performed, all revealed rather large indices of refraction of m = (1.53–1.55) - 0.02i, suggesting the presence of an absorbing carbonaceous component. The particle radius, derived with inversion calculations, was also similar in both years with values ranging from 0.16 to 0.19 μm. However, in 2009, a second mode in the size distribution was detected at about 0.5 μm. The long term measurements with the Koldewey Aerosol Raman LIDAR in Ny-Ålesund provide the opportunity to study Arctic aerosols in the troposphere and the stratosphere not only in case studies but on longer time scales. In this PhD thesis, both, tropospheric aerosols in the Arctic spring and stratospheric aerosols following volcanic eruptions have been described qualitatively and quantitatively. Case studies and comparative studies with data of other instruments on site allowed for the analysis of microphysical aerosol characteristics and their temporal evolution. / Die Arktis ist ein bezüglich Klimaveränderungen besonders sensitives Gebiet, d.h. die globale Erwärmung wirkt sich aufgrund der saisonal hochvariablen Strahlungsbedingungen und der Bodenalbedo dort verstärkt aus.Wolken und Aerosole als Bestandteile der arktischen Atmosphäre spielen dabei eine besondere Rolle im Strahlungsgleichgewicht. Die vorliegende Promotionsarbeit leistet mit Hilfe von LIDAR-Messungen (Light Detection and Ranging) einen Beitrag zum Verständnis von Vorkommen und Eigenschaften von Aerosolschichten über Ny-Ålesund, Spitzbergen. Besonderes Augenmerk liegt dabei auf der Analyse von Zeiträumen mit erhöhter Aerosolbelastung. Es wurde zum einen die arktische Troposphäre zweier Frühjahre (März und April der Jahre 2007 und 2009) untersucht, da im Frühjahr die Aerosol-optische Dicke (AOD) in der Arktis Maximalwerte erreicht. Zum anderen wurden stratosphärische Aerosolschichten vulkanischen Ursprungs analysiert, die in den Sommern 2008 und 2009 nach Ausbrüchen der Kasatochi und Sarychev Vulkane jeweils für mehrere Monate in der unteren Stratosphäre messbar waren. Das an der AWIPEV Forschungsstation betriebene Koldewey Aerosol Raman LIDAR (KARL), ein Instrument zur optischen Fernerkundung atmosphärischer Parameter mittels gepulster Laserstrahlung, wurde im Rahmen der Promotion grundlegend überarbeitet und mit einem neuen Teleskop sowie neuen Detektoroptiken versehen. Dies ermöglicht die Profilerfassung ab 450m über dem Meeresspiegel bis in die mittlere Stratosphäre. KARL liefert hochaufgelöste Messungen der Streueigenschaften von Aerosol- undWolkenteilchen (Rückstreuung, Extinktion und Depolarisation) sowieWasserdampfprofile in der unteren Troposphäre. Durch die Kombination von KARL Messungen mit Daten anderer Messgeräte an der AWIPEV Forschungsstation wie Radiosonden, Sonnenphotometer, Micro Pulse LIDAR und Fesselsonden wurde ein umfassender Datenbestand von Streuphänomenen in der arktischen Atmosphäre geschaffen. Die beiden genannten Frühjahreszeiträume März und April 2007 und 2009 wurden zunächst anhand meteorologischer Parameter, wie lokaler Temperatur- und Feuchteprofile sowie großskaliger Druckmuster und Luftmassenquellgebiete analysiert. Dabei konnte kein eindeutiger Zusammenhang zwischen Quellgebieten und erhöhter AOD festgestellt werden. In einem Vergleich zweier wolkenfreier Perioden im März 2007 und April 2009 war jedoch die höhere Aerosolbelastung in 2009 mit dem Transport von Luftmassen durch die innere Arktis verbunden. Aufgrund der begrenzten Lebensdauer von Aerosolen lässt das entweder Aerosol-Entstehungsprozesse in der Zentralarktis oder Transformationsprozesse während des Transportes nach Ny-Ålesund vermuten. Für Messungen am 4. April 2009 mit Maximalwerten der AOD von bis zu 0.12 konnte die Größe der Aerosolteilchen in verschiedenen Höhen mit Hilfe von Inversionsrechnungen abgeschätzt werden. Diese und andere betrachtete Fallstudien legen eine Unterscheidung von Aerosolereignissen in drei Kategorien nahe, die sich in ihrer Entstehung deutlich unterscheiden: Vertikal begrenzte Aeosolschichten in trockener Luft, zeitlich hochvariable feuchte Aerosolschichten in der planetaren Grenzschicht sowie eine erhöhte Aerosolbelastung über große Teile der Troposphäre. Für das sehr klare Frühjahr 2007 wurden die vorhandenen KARL-Daten mit Hilfe eines Klassifikationsschemas, das auf den optischen Eigenschaften der streuenden Teilchen beruht, statistisch ausgewertet. Das verwendete Schema wurde mit Hilfe von verschiedenen Fallstudien validiert und ermöglicht bei Anwendung auf größere Datenbestände eine aussagekräftige Analyse von jährlichen Schwankungen der Aerosol- und Wolkenvorkommen über Ny-Ålesund. Die Ausbrüche zweier Vulkane in der nördlichen Hemisphäre im August 2008 und im Juni 2009 erlaubten die Analyse vulkanischer Aerosolschichten in der Stratosphäre. Die zeitliche Entwicklung der stratosphärischen AOD verlief in beiden Jahren ähnlich mit Maximalwerten von über 0.1 etwa drei bis fünfWochen nach dem jeweiligen Ausbruch. In beiden Jahren wurden bis zum technisch bedingten Abbruch der Messungen jeweils Ende September erhöhte stratosphärische AOD Werte gemessen. Die niedrigste Aerosolschicht konnte jeweils direkt an der Tropopause detektiert werden. Im Jahr 2008 wurden bis zu drei Schichten detektiert, die Struktur 2009 war durch bis zu sechs schmale Schichten gekennzeichnet, die nach etwa zwei Monaten zu einer breiten Schicht verschmierten. Drei Fallstudien zu mikrophysikalischen Aerosoleigenschaften wurden durchgeführt. Dabei wurden für beide Jahre sehr große Brechungsindices von m=(1.53–1.55) - 0.02i ermittelt, die auf eine absorbierende Kohlenstoffkomponente der Vulkanaerosole hinweisen. Der errechnete Teilchenradius war ebenfalls in beiden Jahren vergleichbar mit Werten zwischen 0.16 und 0.19 μm. 2009 wurde zusätzlich ein zweites Maximum der Größenverteilung bei ca. 0.5μm gefunden. Die Langzeitmessungen mit dem Koldewey Aerosol Raman LIDAR KARL in Ny-Ålesund schaffen die Möglichkeit, arktische Aerosole in Troposphäre und Stratosphäre nicht nur in Fallstudien, sondern auch über längere Zeiträume hinweg zu analysieren. Im Rahmen dieser Promotionsarbeit konnten sowohl Aerosolvorkommen in der arktischen Troposphäre im Frühjahr als auch eine vulkanisch bedingte erhöhte Aerosolbelastung in der Stratosphäre qualitativ und quantitativ beschrieben werden. Fallstudien und die Kombination mit Daten anderer Messgeräte ermöglichten Analysen mikrophysikalischer Aerosolparameter und deren Entwicklungsprozesse.

There is an increasing need for three-dimensional description for various applications such as the development of catchment areas, forest fire control and restoration. Three-dimensional information plays an indispensable role; therefore acquisition of the digital elevation models (DEMs) is the first step in these applications. LiDAR is a recent development in remote sensing with great potential for providing high resolution and accurate three-dimensional point clouds for describing terrain surface. The acquired LiDAR data represents the surface where the laser pulse is reflected from the height of the terrain and object above ground. These objects should be removed to derive the DEMs. Many LiDAR data-filtering studies are based on surface, block, and slope algorithms. These methods have been developed to filter out most features above the terrain; however, in certain situations they have proved unsatisfactory. The different algorithm based on different point of view to describe the terrain surface. The appropriate adoption of the advantages from these algorithms will develop a more complete way to derive DEMs. Knowledge-based system is developed to solve some specific problems according to the given appropriate domain knowledge. Huang (2007) proposed a Knowledge-based classification system in urban feature classification using LiDAR data and high resolution aerial imagery with 93% classification accuracy. This research proposed a knowledge-based LiDAR filtering (KBLF) as a follow-up study of Huang¡¦s study. KBLF integrates various knowledge rules derived from experts in the area of ground feature extraction using LiDAR data to increase the capability of describing terrain and ground feature classification. The filtering capability of KBLF is enhanced as expected to get better quality of referenced ground points to recover terrain height and DEMs using Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) and Nearest Neighbor (NN) methods.

Background: The objective of this study was to verify the effect that plot locational errors, termed plot co-registration errors, have on the strength of regression between LiDAR canopy metrics and the measured total standing volume (TSV) of plots in a Pinus radiata forest. Methods: A 737 hectare plantation of mature Pinus radiata located in Northern Hawkes Bay was selected for the study. This forest had been measured in a pre-harvest inventory and had aerial LiDAR assessment. The location of plots was verified using a survey-grade GPS. Least square linear regression models were developed to predict TSV from LiDAR canopy metrics for a sample of 204 plots. The regression strength, accuracy and bias was compared for models developed using either the actual (verified) or the incorrect (intended) locations for these plots. The change to the LiDAR canopy metrics after the plot co-registration errors was also established. Results: The plot co-registration error in the sample ranged from 0.7 m to 70.3 m, with an average linear spatial error of 10.6 m. The plot co-registration errors substantially reduced the strength of regression between LiDAR canopy metrics and TSV, as the model developed from the actual plot locations had an R2 of 44%, while the model developed from the incorrect plot locations had an R2 of 19%. The greatest reductions in model strength occurred when there was less than a 60% overlap between the plots defined by correct and incorrect locations. Higher plot co-registration errors also caused significant changes to the height and density LiDAR canopy metrics that were used in the regression models. The lower percentile elevation LiDAR metrics were more sensitive to plot co- registration errors, compared to higher percentile metrics. Conclusion: Plot co-registration errors have a significant effect on the strength of regressions formed between TSV and LiDAR canopy metrics. This indicates that accurate measurements of plot locations are necessary to fully utilise LiDAR for inventory purposes in forests of Pinus radiata.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) found in their 2007 report that aerosol radiative forcing contributed larger uncertainties to estimates affecting future climate change than any other radiative forcing factor. Lidar is a tool with which this uncertainty can be reduced, increasing our understanding of the impact of aerosols on climate change. Lidar, or laser radar, is a monostatic active remote sensing technique used to measure aerosols and particulates in the atmosphere, with accuracies comparable to in-situ measurements (Russell 2002). High Spectral Resolution Lidar (HSRL) systems use a narrow band filter to spectrally separate Doppler broadened aerosol and molecular back-scattered return signals, which allows for range resolved profiles of aerosol extinction and backscatter. The narrow band filter is a key component, for which two novel approaches are currently being used: NASA Langley Research Center has implemented a wide-angle Michelson interferometer in the second version of their airborne HSRL, and Montana State University is using a spherical Fabry-Perot interferometer in a ground based HSRL. In this research, a comprehensive comparative analysis of these two interferometric filters is performed, the result of which is a methodology for the design of narrow band filters for HSRL systems. The techniques presented identify the critical components and analyze the performance of each filter based on the spectral and angular properties, as well as the efficiency.

Baigiamojo darbo tikslas – išnagrinėti skirtingais metodais žemėlapio lapui „Raudondvaris“ (57/37) sudarytas horizontales. Baigiamojo darbo uždaviniai: Apžvelgti LIDAR technologijos ir GPS metodo taikymo praktiką žemėtvarkoje, nustatyti skirtingais metodais gautų horizontalių tikslumo koeficientą dirbamoje žemėje, užstatytoje ir kalvotoje vietovėje, nustatyti LIDAR technologijos ir GPS metodu gautų horizontalių nesutapimų priežastis. Nagrinėjamoje teritorijoje, skirtingais metodais gautos reljefo altitudės suskirstytos pagal leistinus horizontalių nesutapimus, kurių intervalai įvertinti atitinkamoms koeficientų reikšmėms. Atlikus lygaus ir kalvoto reljefo išsamią analizę, nustatyta, kad tiksliausia metodų grupė, vaizduojanti reljefo elementus nagrinėjamoje teritorijoje yra LIDAR ir GPS technologijos, kadangi šios metodų grupės tikslumo koeficientas siekia net 0,86. Tuo tarpu išnagrinėjus tris savo žemės paviršiumi skirtingas teritorijas, nustatyta, kad tiksliausi reljefo kartografavimo darbai atliekami ariamos žemės plotuose, kadangi vidutinis tikslumo koeficientas siekia net 0,92, tuo tarpu užstatytoje ir kalvotoje vietovėse koeficientas buvo panašus ir siekė apie 0,68. Baigiamąjį darbą sudaro įvadas, literatūros apžvalga, 4 skyriai, išvados, naudotos literatūros sąrašas, priedai. Darbe yra 3 priedai, 25 paveikslas, 1 lentelė, panaudotas 41 literatūros šaltinis. / The aim of this graduation paper is to compare contour lines for map sheet “Raudondvaris” (57/37), drawn in different methods. Objectives of the work: review the possibilities of LIDAR technology and GPS method application in Lithuania, to identify different methods of horizontal accuracy rate of arable land, built-up and the hilly terrain, to identify causes in horizontal mismatch gained by applying LIDAR technology and GPS method. In the territory under investigation relief altitudes gained by applying different techniques are divided by the permissible horizontal mismatch whose intervals are assessed to the respective values of the coefficients. A detailed analysis of a flat and hilly terrain showed that the most accurate methods of group relief depicting elements of the site in question is LIDAR and GPS technology, as the accuracy rate of this methods group is as high as 0.86. Meanwhile, an examination of three of its ground different areas showed that accurate terrain mapping is carried out in areas of arable land, as the average accuracy rate is as high as 0.92, while the built-up and hilly areas the rate was similar at around 0.68. The graduation work consists of the introduction, analysis of literature, 4 parts, conclusions, list of references and appendices. There are 25 figures, 1 table and 41 references.

The aim and objectives. Overall: To improve forest inventory methods using laser scanning. Specific: To create methodological background for laser scanning in the Lithuanian forest inventory and to provide practical suggestions for the use of remote sensing technique in practice. To attain the objective, the following tasks were formulated: 1. To investigate the influence of forest cover on the digital surface model accuracy when it is drawn up based on laser scanning data; 2. To investigate estimation peculiarities of individual tree characteristics using laser scanning data in the Lithuanian forest conditions; 3. To investigate estimation peculiarities of stand characteristics using laser scanning data in the Lithuanian forest conditions; 4. Provide practical suggestions for the use of laser scanning technology in the Lithuanian forest inventory. Novelty and originality. In Lithuania it is the first research work of a similar nature in forestry, thus from this viewpoint all topics are new and significant. The results obtained studying the issues of surface digital models based on laser scanning data in forest-covered areas are actual to professionals and practitioners also in other fields of science in Lithuania. Other aspects of the work allowing to consider its originality on the international level: • The use of standwise forest inventory data along with laser scanning data both in the estimation of tree dendrometric characteristics and determination of forest... [to full text] / Tikslas ir uždaviniai. Tiriamajam darbui buvo iškeltas tikslas: Bendrasis: Tobulinti miškų inventorizacijos metodus naudojant lazerinį skenavimą Konkretusis: Sukurti lazerinio skenavimo naudojimo vykdant Lietuvos miškų inventorizaciją metodinius pagrindus bei pateikti praktinius pasiūlymus šiai nuotolinių tyrimų technologijai naudoti praktikoje. Tyrimo tikslui pasiekti išsikelti šie uždaviniai: 1. Ištirti miško įtaką skaitmeninio žemės paviršiaus modelio tikslumui, kai šis sudaromas lazerinio skenavimo duomenų pagrindu; 2. Ištirti atskiro medžio charakteristikų nustatymo ypatumus naudojant lazerinio skenavimo duomenis Lietuvos miškų sąlygomis; 3. Ištirti medyno charakteristikų nustatymo ypatumus naudojant lazerinio skenavimo duomenis Lietuvos miškų sąlygomis; 4. Pateikti praktinius pasiūlymus lazerinio skenavimo technologijai naudoti Lietuvos miškų inventorizacijoje. Naujumas ir originalumas. Šio darbo mokslinį ir praktinį naujumą reikia nagrinėti keliais aspektais. Pirmiausia, Lietuvos mastu tai yra pirmas miškotyros mokslinis darbas, nagrinėjantis lazerinio skenavimo taikymą miško inventorizacijoje, todėl visos temos yra naujos ir reikšmingos. Rezultatai, gauti tiriant skaitmeninių Žemės paviršiaus modelių sudarymo lazerinio skenavimo duomenų pagrindu klausimus mišku padengtose teritorijose yra aktualūs ir kitų Lietuvos mokslo sričių specialistams bei praktikams. Vertinant darbo naujumą viso pasaulio kontekste – dauguma naudotų sprendimų yra adaptuoti Lietuvos sąlygomis... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]

Ce travail de thèse a consisté à établir une base de données d'éboulements rocheux la plus exhaustive possible (pour des volumes supérieurs à 0,1 m3) pour une paroi rocheuse active dominant l'agglomération grenobloise, en utilisant des données de scanner laser et de photographie. Le site d'étude est une falaise calcaire de plusieurs kilomètres en bordure du massif de la Chartreuse, constituée de deux barres de morphologies différentes, l'une en calcaire lité, l'autre en calcaire massif.Les nuages de points issus du scanner laser permettent de reconstituer la falaise et les compartiments éboulés en 3D. Les données de surface des falaises, ainsi que des informations sur la localisation, les dimensions, le mécanisme de rupture propre à chaque compartiment ont été analysées pour caractériser l'évolution morphologique des deux falaises. Il apparait que la falaise inférieure, dont la morphologie dépend fortement de la fracturation et de l'érosion torrentielle des marnes sous-jacentes, présente une fréquence d'éboulement 22 fois plus importante que la falaise supérieure, de morphologie et pente régulière. De plus, dans la falaise inférieure, le taux d'érosion est 4 fois plus élevé entre 900 et 1000 m d'altitude, qu'entre 1000 et 1100 m. Cela montre que le régime d'érosion de cette falaise est transitoire, alors que celui de la falaise supérieure pourrait être permanent.Les éboulements rocheux détectés ont également été datés par un suivi photographique pendant 2,5 ans. Un suivi quasi-continu (1 photo toutes les 10 min), avec un objectif grand angle a permis de dater 214 éboulements de plus de 0,1 m3. Un suivi mensuel, avec un téléobjectif, a permis de dater 854 éboulements de plus de 0,01 m3. L'analyse de ces deux bases de données montre que la fréquence d'éboulements rocheux peut être 7 fois plus grande lors d'un épisode de gel-dégel que sans évènement météorologique particulier, et 4,5 fois plus grande lors d'un épisode de pluie. De plus, elle devient 26 fois plus grande si l'intensité depuis le début de l'épisode est supérieure à 5 mm/h. A partir de ces résultats, une échelle de 4 niveaux d'aléa a pu être proposée pour la prévision de l'aléa. La base de données plus précise et la définition des épisodes de gel-dégel ont permis de distinguer différentes phases dans un épisode de gel-dégel : refroidissement à température négative, réchauffement à température négative, et dégel (à température positive). Il apparait que les éboulements rocheux se produisent plus fréquemment lors des périodes de réchauffement (à température négative) et de dégel que lors des périodes de refroidissement. Cela suggère que les éboulements sont causés par la dilatation thermique de la glace plutôt que par la dilatation due au changement de phase. Ils peuvent cependant ne se produire que lors du dégel, car la cohésion de l'interface roche-glace peut être suffisante pour tenir le bloc jusqu'à la fonte de la glace. Des expériences in situ et en laboratoire ont permis de mesurer la pression de glace dans une fissure avec écoulement d'eau. Elles montrent que la glace formée par accrétion (gel de gouttes ou films d'eau) n'exerce pas de pression sur les parois rocheuses. / Using laser scanner data, an exhaustive rockfall database (for volume larger than 0.1 m3) has been established for a rockwall located near the town of Grenoble (France). The study site is a long double cliff, on the eastern border of the Chartreuse Massif. The two cliffs consist respectively of thinly bedded and massive limestone, which show different structures, morphologies and rockfall activities.The 3D point clouds obtained by laser scanner allow to detect and model the fallen compartments in 3D. Information about cliff surface, and localization, dimensions, failure mechanism for each compartment were obtained and analyzed in order to characterize the morphological evolutions of the two cliffs. It appears that the morphology and the slope of the lower cliff is related to fracturing and torrential erosion which occurs in the marls below the cliff. The rockfall frequency for this lower cliff is 22 times higher than for the upper cliff. Moreover, in the lower cliff the erosion rate is at least 4 times higher for an elevation between 900 and 1000 m than between 1000 and 1100 m. These results show that the erosion process in the lower cliff is in a transient state, whereas it could be in a steady state in the upper cliff. The morphology and the slope of the upper cliff is more regular than for the lower cliff.Rockfalls have been dated by photographic surveys during 2.5 years. A near-continuous survey (1 photo each 10 mn) with a wide-angle lens have allowed dating 214 rockfalls larger than 0.1 m3, and a monthly survey with a telephoto lens, dating 854 rockfalls larger than 0.01 m3. The analysis of the two data bases shows that the rockfall frequency is 7 times higher during freeze-thaw episodes than without meteorological event, and 4.5 times higher during rainfall episodes. Moreover, it becomes 26 times higher when the mean rainfall intensity (since the beginning of the rainfall episode) is higher than 5 mm/h. Based on these results, a 4-level hazard scale has been proposed for hazard prediction. The more precise data base and freeze-thaw episode definition make it possible to distinguish different phases in freeze-thaw episodes: negative temperature cooling periods, negative temperature warming periods and thawing periods. It appears that rockfalls occur more frequently during warming and thawing periods than during cooling periods. It can be inferred that rockfalls are caused by thermal ice dilatation rather than by dilatation due to the phase transition. But they may occur only when the ice melt, because the cohesion of the ice-rock interface can be sufficient to hold the failed rock compartment until the ice melt. The formation of ice in rock cracks has been studied in the field and in laboratory to highlight its influence on rockfall triggering. It has been shown that ice forming by an accretion process (freezing of water drops) doesn't exert a pressure on the crack walls.