The lubricants of the future have to be more environmentally adapted, have a higher level of performance, and lower total life cycle cost (LCC) than commonly used lubricants today. Since we live on a planet with finite resources, we have to think about coming generations and work for a sustainable development in the field of tribology. To be able to formulate those lubricants, the properties of the base fluids have to be well known. Base fluid properties that influence the formulated lubricant performance could be divided in to three different groups. These groups are; physical, chemical and film formation properties. In this study are properties from all of these groups investigated to improve the understanding on there influence on base fluid overall performance. There are more or less environmentally adapted base fluids available for formulation of lubricants. They could be divided in to different groups, mineral, semi synthetic and synthetic fluids. Synthetic fluids could be of different type: PAO (poly alpha olefins), Synthetic ester, Poly glycols and others. The most interesting group for formulation of environmentally adapted lubricants are the synthetic esters. In this thesis the properties for a large number of environmentally adapted ester base fluids are studied in detail. The tested properties relate to the macroscopic / molecular behaviour and include: viscosity-temperature-pressure-effects, thermal conductivity, and heat capacity per unit volume. The film formation capability in EHD contacts is also studied. Different connections between the molecular structure and the performance for the fluids are discussed. As an example, it is found that a large number of carboxylate groups in the ester molecule are improving the thermal properties, and thereby a thicker lubricating film could be maintained in highly loaded, high slip contacts. / Godkänd; 2004; 20070128 (ysko)

This work investigated the wear mechanisms of turbocharger components in heavy duty diesel engines. By understanding the wear mechanisms that are occurring in turbochargers the life time of the turbocharger components can be improved. For better understanding, as to why the components are worn out, an analysis of several turbocharger components and tribological tests were carried out.   The contact surfaces between turbocharger and sealing rings were analysed. Surfaces are analysed by several methods, including chemical composition of the surface. Influence of different parameters such as contact pressure, sliding velocity, temperature, and distance on friction and wear behaviour are established by performing tribological tests. Pin on disc sliding wear tests were carried out at both room temperature and at high temperature of 300˚C. The pin and the disc, that were used during the tribological tests, were made of the same materials that are used in turbocharger components.   Analysis of pins and discs from tribo-tests and turbocharger components (turbine sealing rings and shafts) show abrasive and adhesive wear on the worn surfaces of the components, from both the tribological tests and the turbochargers respectively. An increase of the temperature resulted in a reduced friction due to the formation of oxide layers on the sliding surfaces of pins and discs. In the turbocharger, traces of lubricant between the sliding surfaces was found, in addition to plastic deformations on the worn surfaces of the shafts and adhesive and abrasive wear on both worn surfaces that were in contact with each other. On the other hand, on the worn surfaces of the turbine sealing rings some cracks were observed that were perpendicular to the sliding direction, which indicates presence of a fatigue process. The presence of fatigue cracks is probably due to the way the trucks were operated, the increase and decrease of temperature and pressure in the turbocharger is probably the cause of these cracks.   To minimize the wear mechanisms that occurs in turbocharger components such as sealing rings and shafts, there are some parameters such as contact pressure between the sliding surfaces of the components that can be minimized. By minimizing the contact pressure between the sliding surfaces, the lifetime of turbocharger can be improved. A better surface finishing and geometry of the contacting surfaces can also improve the sealing rings and shafts lifetime. To minimize the relaxation of turbine sealing rings, materials that can better keep the mechanical properties of the sealing rings at high temperatures must be used.

Les enjeux écologiques liés au réchauffement climatique, et plus généralement la lutte contre la pollution, ont occasionné une révolution sans précédent dans le domaine des transports. De nombreuses recherches portant sur l’identification de voies d’amélioration du rendement mécanique des moteurs à combustion interne ont été menées au cours de ces dernières décennies. Dans les moteurs Diesel, le contact Segments-Piston-Chemise (SPC) représente à lui seul près de 40 % des pertes d’énergie par frottement mécanique totales du moteur. Ce travail de thèse s’inscrit dans le cadre général de la lubrification des moteurs Diesel en présence de suies et s’intéresse plus particulièrement au poste SPC pour des contacts Diamond-Like Carbon (DLC) lubrifiés. Ce travail de thèse s’appuie sur des outils de tribométrie originaux pour reproduire les cinématiques particulières des contacts impliqués au niveau de la segmentation. Cette thèse s’attache à identifier l’influence d’un lubrifiant vieilli en fonctionnement sur les mécanismes de lubrification et les mécanismes de frottement associés de couches minces dures de type DLC, en balayant l’ensemble des régimes de lubrification pour des conditions stationnaires et transitoires. Les revêtements DLC développés dans le cadre de ce travail de thèse ont permis de diminuer significativement le frottement limite en conditions stationnaires et transitoires. La déstructuration du lubrifiant via la formation d’agrégats, générés par le passage des suies, ou par une annulation temporaire de la vitesse d’entraînement représentative des cinématiques de contact observées en zone SPC, sont gouvernés par le triptyque, lubrifiant, surface et cinématique de contact. Enfin, l’analyse de la réponse tribologique de l’interface lubrifiée en conditions stationnaires et transitoires permet à la modélisation théorique du frottement lors d’un cycle complet de glissement à vitesses variables. / Ecological issues related to global warming, and more generally the reduction of pollution, have lead to a major revolution in the field of transport. Considerable research work has been carried out during the past decades in order to improve the mechanical efficiency of internal combustion engines. In Diesel engines, almost 40 % of total engine energy losses due to mechanical friction occur in the Piston rings-Piston-Cylinder contact (PPC). The overall framework of this PhD thesis is Diesel engine lubrication in presence of soot and this work focuses more particularly on Diamond-Like Carbon (DLC) lubricated contacts for PPC region. Unique tribometry tools are used to reproduce the particular contact kinematics involved in the piston assembly. This thesis aims to identify the influence of an aged lubricant on the lubrication and friction mechanisms of DLC hard coatings for all lubrication regimes in steady-state and transient conditions. DLC coatings developed during this thesis significantly reduce the boundary friction in steady-state and transient conditions. The lubricant destructuring due to aggregate formation, generated by the passage of soot, or by a temporary vanishing of the entrainment speed, are governed by the triplet, lubricant, surface and contact kinematics. Finally, the analysis of the tribological response of the lubricated interface in steady-state and transient conditions leads to the theoretical modeling of the friction during a complete cycle of sliding at variable velocities.

L’utilisation des additifs conventionnels (MoDTC, ZnDTP) dans les lubrifiants pour réduire le frottement et l’usure de pièces frottantes ont montré des limitations. Afin de pallier les faiblesses de ces additifs de nouvelles stratégies de lubrification ont été développées en utilisant des particules colloïdales de phases réductrices de frottement et d’usure. Les travaux antérieurs ont montré que l’introduction d’un lubrifiant solide composé de nanoparticules lamellaires en présence d’un liquide de faible viscosité entraînait une réduction spectaculaire du coefficient de frottement. L’objectif principal de la thèse est donc l’élucidation des mécanismes d’action mis en œuvre lors de ce processus de réduction du frottement. L’ensemble des résultats expérimentaux, acquis au cours des essais réalisés sur les films de nanoparticules (graphite exfolié et CND-G) en présence de pentane ou en présence de dispersion de nanoparticules dans le dodécane, à l’aide d’un tribomètre alternatif à géométrie sphère/plan, nous a permis de montrer que le processus de réduction du frottement est lié à la formation d’un contact conforme par constitution d’un film épais de nanoparticules agglomérées dans la zone de pénombre de Hertz conduit au changement de régime de lubrification limite vers un régime mixte ou EHD. Les analyses physico-chimiques du contact en glissement lubrifié par spectrométrie Raman in situ nous a permis de montrer que le film lubrifiant est constitué de la dispersion de nanoparticules dans le liquide et que le processus spécifique de réduction du frottement est aussi associé à l’orientation des nanoparticules parallèlement aux surfaces de glissement. / The use of conventional additives (MoDTC, ZnDTP) in lubricants to reduce friction and wear of friction parts have shown limitations. To overcome the limitations of these additives new lubrication strategies were developed using friction reducer colloidal particles. Previous work has shown that the introduction of a solid lubricant composed of nanoparticles dispersed in the lubricating base oil presenting a low viscosity has shown a reduction of the friction. The aim of the thesis is the elucidation of the mechanisms of action used during the process of friction reduction. All the experimental results acquired during the tests on the films of nanoparticles (exfoliated graphite and CND-G) in the presence of pentane or presence of nanoparticles dispersion in dodecane, using a alternating tribometer geometry sphere / plan allowed us to show that the friction reducing process is related to the formation of a conform contact by the formation of a thick film of agglomerated nanoparticles in Hertz penumbra that led to a transition of lubrication boundary regime to a mixed or EHD regime. The physicochemical analyzes of sliding contact by in situ spectrometry Raman in situ allowed us to show that the lubricant film is composed of the dispersion of nanoparticles in the liquid and the specific friction reduction mechanims is also associated to the orientation of nanoparticles parallel to the sliding surfaces.

The following report conducted with collaboration of the University of Halmstad and ABSandvik Coromant.The focus of the project is characterizing the surface topography of different surface treatmentvariants before and after chemical vapor deposition (CVD).As a part of improving the knowledge about the surface area characterization and accomplisha better knowledge and understanding about surfaces and its relation to wear of uncoatedWC/Co cutting tools The project initiated in February 2016 and end date was set to May2016.The methodology used in this thesis based on the statistical analysis of surface topographicalmeasurements obtained from interferometer and SEM by using Digital-Surf-MountainsMapsoftware.The finding from this thesis showed that Mean and Standard deviation method, Spearman’scorrelation analysis and Standard deviation error bar followed by ANOVA and T-test areeffective and useful when comparing between different variants.The thesis resulted in a measurement approach for characterizing different surfacetopographies using interferometer and SEM together with statistical analysis.Keywords: 3D-Surfaces Texture, CVD coating inserts, Interferometer, Spearman’s correlation andANOVA & T-test.

Le contrôle de la friction en régime limite s’effectue par le biais de lubrifiants qui, par l’adsorption de molécules sur les surfaces, réduisent les contacts directs entre aspérités. Dans ce contexte, l’objectif de cette thèse est de comprendre et de coupler les mécanismes, à la fois, d’adsorption et d’auto-organisation de différents acides gras sur des surfaces, et les mécanismes de friction interfaciale sous des conditions stationnaires et transitoires. L’effet de l’architecture moléculaire, modifiée par la présence et la conformation d’une insaturation dans la chaîne aliphatique des acides gras, a également été analysé. La caractérisation in-situ, à l’échelle moléculaire, a été réalisée avec le tribomètre moléculaire ATLAS développé au LTDS. Cet appareil permet des déplacements quasi-statiques et dynamiques, d’une sphère mise en regard d’un plan, suivant trois axes. Trois solutions d’acides gras, en faible concentration dans du dodécane, ont été analysées. Les déplacements et les forces, normaux et tangentiels, sont mesurés à l’aide de capteurs capacitifs d’une résolution respective de 0.015 nm et 10 nN. Des sollicitations dynamiques superposées permettent de caractériser simultanément la rhéologie de l’interface confinée en termes d’amortissement et de raideur, dans les deux directions. Les résultats montrent que les acides gras s’adsorbent par interaction physique sur les surfaces pour former des films visco-élastiques d’une épaisseur d’environ 15 Å sur chaque surface. Le taux de couverture et la cinétique d’adsorption de ces couches dépendent de l’architecture moléculaire des acides gras. Cette dernière gouverne également la friction interfaciale, qui a été qualifiée de supraglissement, et la rhéologie des monocouches auto-assemblées. Les différentes organisations de films conduisent ainsi à différentes évolutions de la friction en fonction de la vitesse de glissement et de la pression de contact. La réponse en friction transitoire et l’accommodation lors du glissement vers un nouvel état stationnaire ont de plus été décrites par des distances caractéristiques, de plusieurs nanomètres, reflétant le renouvellement statistique des spots de contact, et par des temps de relaxation, de l’ordre de la seconde, décrivant le réarrangement moléculaire au sein de l’interface. Enfin, une modélisation théorique de la friction limite a été proposée afin de comprendre l’origine moléculaire de la friction entre monocouches d’acides gras mettant ainsi en évidence le couplage fort de deux échelles spatiales et temporelles. / Friction in boundary lubrication can be controlled by the adsorption of molecules on surfaces that reduce direct contacts between asperities. In this context, the aim of this thesis is to understand and to couple the mechanisms of adsorption and self-organization of different fatty acids on surfaces, with the mechanisms of interfacial friction under steady-state regime and transient conditions. The effect of the molecular architecture, modified by the presence and conformation of one unsaturation in the aliphatic chain of fatty acids, was also analyzed. In-situ characterization, at the molecular level, was performed with the molecular tribometer ATLAS, developed at LTDS. This apparatus allows quasi-static and dynamic displacements, of a sphere in front of a plane in three directions. Three fatty acids solutions, in low concentration in dodecane, were analyzed. The displacements and the forces, normal and tangential, are measured using capacitive sensors with a resolution of 0.015 nm and 10 nN respectively. Dynamic superimposed measurements allow a simultaneous rheological characterization of the confined interface in terms of damping and stiffness in two directions. The results show that the fatty acids adsorb on the surfaces by weak interactions and form viscoelastic films with a thickness of about 15 Å on each surface. The coverage rate and adsorption kinetics of these layers depend on the molecular architecture of the fatty acids. This architecture also governs interfacial friction, which has been described as superlubricity, and the rheology of self-assembled monolayers. Various film organizations have thus led to different evolutions of the friction as a function of the sliding speed and the contact pressure. The transient friction response and its accommodation during slip to a new stationary state have also been described by characteristic distances of several nanometers, reflecting the statistic average renewal of the contact spots, and by relaxation times of the order of the second, describing the molecular rearrangement within the interface. Finally, theoretical modeling of boundary friction has been proposed to understand the molecular origin of the friction between monolayers of fatty acids and highlight the strong coupling between both spatial and temporal scales.

Godkänd; 1984; 20070424 (ysko)

We consider mathematical modeling of thin film flow between two rough surfaces which are in relative motion. For example such flows take place in different kinds of bearings and gears when a lubricant is used to reduce friction and wear between the surfaces. The mathematical foundations of lubrication theory is given by the Navier--Stokes equation, which describes the motion of viscous fluids. In thin domains several approximations are possible which lead to the so called Reynolds equation. This equation is crucial to describe the pressure in the lubricant film. When the pressure is found it is possible to predict vorous important physical quantities such as friction (stresses on the bounding surfaces), load carrying capacity and velocity field. In hydrodynamic lubrication the effect of surface roughness is not negligible, because in practical situations the amplitude of the surface roughness are of the same order as the film thickness. Moreover, a perfectly smooth surface does not exist in reality due to imperfections in the manufacturing process. Therefore, any realistic lubrication model should account for the effects of surface roughness. This implies that the mathematical modeling leads to partial differential equations with coefficients that will oscillate rapidly in space and time. A direct numerical computation is therefore very difficult, since an extremely dense mesh is needed to resolve the oscillations due to the surface roughness. A natural approach is to do some type of averaging. In this PhD thesis we use and develop modern homogenization theory to be able to handle the questions above. Especially, we use, develop and apply the method based on the multiple scale expansions and two-scale convergence. The thesis is based on five papers (A-E), with an appendix to paper A, and an extensive introduction, which puts these publications in a larger context. In Paper A the connection between the Stokes equation and the Reynolds equation is investigated. More precisely, the asymptotic behavior as both the film thickness <img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cepsilon" /> and wavelength <img src="http://www.diva-portal.org/cgi-bin/mimetex.cgi?%5Cmu" /> of the roughness tend to zero is analyzed and described. Three different limit equations are derived. Time-dependent equations of Reynolds type are obtained in all three cases (Stokes roughness, Reynolds roughness and high frequency roughness regime). In paper C we extend the work done in Paper A where we compare the roughness regimes by numeric computations for the stationary case. In paper B we present a mathematical model that takes into account cavitation, surfaces roughness and compressibility of the fluid. We compute the homogenized coefficients in the case of unidirectional roughness.In the paper D we derive a mathematical model of thin film flow between two close rough surfaces, which takes into account cavitation, surface roughness and pressure dependent density. Moreover, we use two-scale convergence to homogenize the model. Finally, in paper E we prove the existence of solutions to a frequently used mathematical model of thin film flow, which takes cavitation into account.

[pt] A formação de emulsões está presente em diversas atividades industriais, incluindo o setor petrolífero. A análise de quebra de gota em capilares com garganta remete ao estudo da formação de emulsões e suas características em meios porosos. Esta dissertação apresenta um modelo numérico baseado nas equações de conservação, e na teoria da lubrificação. O modelo foi desenvolvido considerando as duas fases como fluidos Newtonianos, e o sistema de equações diferencias resultante foi resolvido pelo método de diferenças finitas centrais, implementado em ambiente MATLAB®. Determina-se o campo de pressão dos fluidos, bem como sua interface ao longo do tempo. A análise da influência de parâmetros, tanto da geometria do capilar quanto das propriedades dos fluidos, indicou comportamentos adequados em comparação com os dados disponíveis na literatura. Observou-se que a viscosidade do fluido da fase contínua possui maior influência no tempo de formação de gota, do que a viscosidade do fluido da fase dispersa. O tempo de quebra de gota da fase dispersa varia linearmente com a viscosidade da fase contínua. Observa-se que o raio da garganta do capilar influencia diretamente no tempo de quebra de gota, onde para raios menores, o tempo de formação de gota será menor do que para um raio de garganta maior, devido a um gradiente de pressão capilar mais elevado. / [en] The snap off of emulsion drops appears in several industrial activities, including the oil industry. The analysis snap off in a constricted capillary is related to the study of emulsion formation and its characteristics in a porous media. This thesis presents a numerical model based on the conservation equations and lubrification theory developed for Newtonians fluids. The resulting system of differential equations was solved by finite difference and the code implemented in MATLB®. The analysis of the effect of different parameters, such as the geometry of the capillary and the liquid proprieties, indicated appropriate behaviors in comparison to data in the literature. It was observed that the viscosity of the continuous phase fluid has a stronger influence in the snap off time than the viscosity of the dispersed phase fluid. The snap off time rises with the viscosity of the continuous phase fluid. It was observed that the variation of the radius of the neck directly influences the snap off time, where smaller throat radius leads to shorter snap-off time, due to stronger capillary pressure gradient.

Les normes environnementales toujours plus sévères associées à une constante augmentation de la demande énergétique rendent nécessaires les actions à entreprendre en vue d’améliorer l’efficacité énergétique. Dans le domaine du transport, responsable à lui seul de plus de la moitié de la consommation des ressources pétrolières, les actions visant à optimiser la consommation énergétique se traduisent par la mise en place de nouvelles technologies hybrides, par un travail sur l’aérodynamisme des véhicules, la conception de pneumatiques plus performants ou bien encore la réduction de la taille des moteurs et des boites de vitesse afin de réduire le poids des véhicules. Cependant, selon le VTT (Centre de recherche technique finlandais), dans les voitures particulières, les pertes par frottement représentent un tiers de la consommation totale de carburant. Plusieurs millions de litres de carburant sont ainsi utilisés dans le monde chaque année pour vaincre les forces de frottement. Pour cette raison la recherche en tribologie dans le domaine de l’automobile s’est plus particulièrement focalisée ces dernières années sur le développement de matériaux à faible coefficient de frottement ainsi que lubrifiants plus performants. Ce travail de thèse a pour objectif d’étudier le potentiel des nanoparticules de dichalcogénures métalliques en tant qu’additifs de lubrification pour applications automobiles dans le but de développer de nouveaux lubrifiants hautement performants. Ces nanoparticules, synthétisées pour la première fois dans les années 90, ont déjà montré des propriétés tribologiques intéressantes lors de tests effectués en laboratoire, en régime de lubrification limite. Toutefois, leur utilisation dans des systèmes mécaniques réels nécessite une meilleure compréhension de leurs performances dans des conditions plus proches de la réalité, à savoir en présence de surfaces rugueuses ainsi qu’en présence d’additifs couramment utilisés dans les lubrifiants industriels. Au cours de ce travail, nous nous sommes focalisés sur des nanoparticules de bisulfures de tungstène produites industriellement. Le contexte industriel de ce travail de thèse ainsi que les bases de la tribologie seront exposés dans un premier chapitre consacré à l’état de l’art. Dans ce même chapitre, une revue bibliographique des propriétés lubrifiantes des nanoparticules de bisulfures métalliques (MoS2, WS2) observées lors d’essais tribologiques effectués en laboratoire sera également présentée. L’influence de certains paramètres tels que les conditions d’essais, l’effet de la température, de la concentration, de la cristallinité sera également présentée dans ce premier chapitre.Les résultats de mon travail de thèse seront présentés à travers deux grandes parties. Dans une première, les caractéristiques morphologiques et chimiques des nanoparticules étudiées seront présentées. Leurs propriétés tribologiques dans l’huile de base en présence de surfaces en acier de différentes rugosités seront discutées. Enfin, leurs performances en présence d’additifs couramment utilisés dans les applications industrielles ont également été étudiées. Tous ces essais ont été réalisés en régime de lubrification limite et à 100°C. Dans une seconde partie, le potentiel des nanoparticules pour une application boîte de vitesses a été exploré. Des essais tribologiques ont été réalisés à la fois dans une huile de base ainsi qu’en présence d’un cocktail d’additifs, tout d’abord à l’échelle du laboratoire puis lors de tests réels effectués avec des boites de vitesses utilisées dans l’automobile. Les résultats montrent que les nanoparticules peuvent être utilisées pour augmenter la durée de vie des engrenages. / The growing environmental concerns, along with the continuous increase of energy demand, have encouraged research to improve energy efficiency in every technological field. In the transport industry, responsible of more than half of the world’s oil consumption, manufacturers have bet on hybrid fuel technologies, more aerodynamic car profiles, innovative tires and even downsizing of engines and gearboxes to reduce the weight of the vehicles to face the problem. However, according to VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, in passenger cars one third of fuel consumption is due to friction loss. This means that several millions of liters of fuel are used every year to overcome friction around the world. As a consequence, reduction on the friction losses would have a direct impact in oil consumption. For this reason, research in the tribology field has specially focused in the development of low friction materials and more efficient lubricants. This work investigates the potential of metal dichalcogenide nanoparticles as lubricant additives for automobile applications with the aim of formulating more efficient lubricants. These nanoparticles which were synthetized for the first time in the 90’s have shown interesting tribological properties when added to base oil under specific laboratory test conditions. However, their future use in real-life mechanical systems needs a better comprehension of their behavior on rough surfaces and in the presence of additives commonly used in industrial lubricants.Industrially produced tungsten disulfide nanoparticles were used in this work. First of all, the industrial context of this work and the basis of tribology science in general and of tribology in the automotive industry in particular are exposed in the state of the art part. In this section, a literature review of the lubricating properties of laboratory scale produced metal dichalcogenides nanoparticles of tungsten and molybdenum disulfide is exposed. The effect of different conditions (temperature, concentration in oil, contact pressure, among others) is also presented in this first section. The research work done for this thesis is divided in two main parts. In the first one, the nanoparticles were first morphologically and chemically characterized and their tribological potential in base oil was investigated on smooth and rough surfaces under different test conditions. Then, their tribological behavior in the presence of additives that are commonly used in industrial applications, in the boundary lubrication regime and at 100°C was studied.In the second part, the use of nanoparticles for a gearbox application was explored. The potential of the nanoparticles in base oil and in the presence of a commercial package of additives for this application was studied, first at the laboratory scale, and then in scaled-up tests with gearboxes used in cars. The results suggest that nanoparticles can be used to increase life span of the mechanical parts of gears.