The purpose of this study was to analyze and compare the agonistic behaviors and reconciliation in captive and free-ranging Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis). The dominance style of Formosan macaques was compared with long-tailed, rhesus and Japanese macaques. I have used scan, focal sampling and ad libitum on aggressions of adult macaques. I have recorded post-conflict (PC) focal samplings on victims and compared those with matched control (MC) focal samplings. Agonistic behaviors had significantly higher frequency in captive than in free-ranging Formosan macaques. The frequencies of hostile and submission were significantly higher in captive than in free-ranging Formosan macaques. The captive adult females of higher rank had higher frequency of threat and hostile, and lower frequency of submission. Threat was the most frequent aggression (52-72%) expressed by both the captive and free-ranging adult monkeys. The victims in captive and free-ranging Formosan macaques usually submitted immediately after aggression (82-89%). The proportion of counter aggression in captive and free-ranging Formosan macaques were relative low (9-16%). The aqerage conciliatory tendency for adult Formosan macaques was 14.3% to 19.6%. The affiliative contacts in PC and MC in captive and free-ranging Formosan macaques were striking that both preferred grooming. The Formosan macaques significantly reconciled more during PC than MC period both in captive and free-ranging conditions. In addition, both had significantly more attracted than dispersed PC-MC pairs. The conciliatory tendencies in captive and free-ranging Formosan macaques were similar regardless of kin and non-kin partners. This study indicated that Formosan macaques were close to the macaques of Fascicularis group. Therefore, Formosan macaques had a despotic dominance style as suggested by Phylogenetic hypotheses.

Submitted by Tatiana Oliveira (tsilva@icict.fiocruz.br) on 2012-06-02T21:57:40Z No. of bitstreams: 1 debora_rl_santos_ioc_bp_0004_2010.pdf: 851931 bytes, checksum: 53ba90215d519794dc32572e27e887e9 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2012-06-02T21:57:40Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 debora_rl_santos_ioc_bp_0004_2010.pdf: 851931 bytes, checksum: 53ba90215d519794dc32572e27e887e9 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Fundação Oswaldo Cruz.Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. Rio de janeiro, RJ, Brasil / Vírus da hepatite E (HEV) detectados em amostras de origem animal vêm sendo associados a casos humanos esporádicos de hepatite E aguda em regiões não endêmicas. No Brasil, a alta prevalência de anticorpos anti-HEV em suínos foi demonstrada em granjas comerciais sugerindo a grande disseminação deste vírus em rebanhos suinícolos. A fim de se comprovar a circulação do HEV no país três investigações foram conduzidas a partir de amostras obtidas de suínos, do ambiente, e de humanos. No primeiro estudo, foi realizado o acompanhamento sorológico de 26 animais desde o nascimento até a idade do abate em uma granja comercial e de 47 animais de uma fazenda modelo nos estados do Rio de Janeiro e Mato Grosso, respectivamente. Amostras de fezes foram coletadas de pocilgas de animais de diferentes faixas etárias. Ao fim deste estudo, a maioria dos animais era sororeativa para anti-HEV. Pela técnica de reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR), o genoma parcial do HEV foi detectado e as amostras classificadas no genótipo 3, o mesmo que circula em outras populações suínas tanto de regiões endêmicas quanto não-endêmicas. Posteriormente, para se avaliar a incidência de animais com infecção corrente durante o abate, um estudo foi conduzido em três abatedouros fiscalizados pelo Serviço de Inspeção Estadual do Rio de Janeiro (SIE). Pela técnica de PCR em tempo real, o HEV foi detectado em 9,6% das amostras obtidas de animais.Foram realizadas coletas de efluentes não tratados dos abatedouros estudados e o genoma do HEV foi detectado em três pontos de coleta de um abatedouro. A quantificação média observada foi de 101 a 105 cópias/mL para as amostras animais de bile e de 102 cópias/mL para as amostras ambientais. A detecção do genoma parcial pela técnica de nested RT-PCR foi realizada, para caracterização molecular das amostras. Estas foram classificadas no genótipo 3 subtipo 3b do HEV, agrupando-se com as amostras caracterizadas do estudo anterior sugerindo a circulação endêmica do HEV no Rio de Janeiro. Em um estudo retrospectivo realizado com pacientes agudos de hepatite não A-C atendidos no Grupo de Atendimento para Hepatites Virais do IOC/Fiocruz foi identificado o primeiro caso humano confirmado de hepatite E do Brasil. Esta amostra agrupou-se no genótipo 3 subtipo 3b, também relacionada às amostras obtidas de suínos da granja e dos abatedouros. De acordo as informações epidemiológicas do paciente, o consumo de carne de porco pode ter sido a fonte de infecção. Os estudos apresentados foram os primeiros que constataram a circulação do HEV em suínos, amostras ambientais e em humanos no Brasil. / Hepatitis E virus (HEV) detected in samples of animal origin have been associated with sporadic human cases of acute hepatitis E in non-endemic regions. In Brazil, the high prevalence of anti-HEV in pigs on commercial farms has been demonstrated suggesting the wide spread of this virus in herds suinícolos. In order to check the movement of the country HEV three investigations were conducted on samples obtained from pigs, environmental, and human. In the first study, we performed a serological monitoring of 26 animals from birth until the age of slaughter at a commercial farm and 47 animals on a model farm in the states of Rio de Janeiro and Mato Grosso, respectively. Stool samples were collected from pens of animals of different ages. At the end of this study, the majority of animals was sororeativa for anti-HEV. The technique of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a partial genome of HEV has been detected and classified the samples with genotype 3, which runs the same in other populations of both pork and non-endemic regions endemic. Subsequently, to evaluate the incidence of infected animals during slaughter chain, a study was conducted in three slaughterhouses inspected by the State Inspection Service of Rio de Janeiro (SIE). By PCR in real time, HEV was detected in 9.6% of samples of sampled animais.Foram of untreated effluent from slaughterhouses and studied HEV genome was detected in three sampling points of a slaughterhouse. Quantification was observed mean 101-105 copies / mL for animals samples of bile and 102 copies / mL for environmental samples. The detection of partial genome by the technique of nested RT-PCR was performed for molecular characterization of the samples. These were classified as genotype 3 HEV subtype 3b, grouping with samples characterized in the previous study suggesting the endemic circulation of HEV in Rio de Janeiro. In a retrospective study of patients with acute hepatitis non-AC treated at Care Group for Viral Hepatitis of the IOC / Fiocruz was identified the first confirmed human case of hepatitis E in Brazil. This sample was grouped with genotype 3 subtype 3b, also related to the samples obtained from pigs on the farm and the slaughterhouse. According to epidemiological information of the patient, the consumption of pork may have been the source of infection. The studies presented were the first who observed the circulation of HEV in swine, human and environmental samples in Brazil.

Der Einfluß der mütterlichen Verwandtschaft auf das soziale Verhalten ist eingehend für viele Primatenarten untersucht worden, es ist jedoch schwierig die Bedeutung der Verwandtenselektion auf die Evolution von sozialem Verhalten zu bewerten, wenn Studien auf die mütterliche Verwandtschaft begrenzt sind und die väterliche Verwandtschaft dabei völlig ignorieren. Das Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation war die Untersuchung des Ausmaßes der väterlichen Verwandtschaft und ihr Einfluß auf die sozialen Beziehungen zwischen adulten Weibchen in einer freilebenden Gruppe von Rhesusaffen (Macaca mulatta) auf der Insel Cayo Santiago. Die wichtigsten Resultate können folgendermaßen zusammengefaßt werden: Erstens, zur Beurteilung des Ausmaßes der väterlichen Verwandtschaft wurde die Vaterschaft der zwischen 1993 und 1998 geborenen Kindern der Studiengruppe bestimmt. Die Resultate zeigten, dass die Reproduktion der Männchen innerhalb der Untersuchungszeit nicht gleich verteilt war, einige wenige Männchen zeugten viele Nachkommen, aber die Mehrzahl der potentiellen Väter reproduzierten sich gar nicht oder nur wenig. Dies führte zu einer Verwandtschaftsstruktur in der fast alle im Untersuchungszeitraum geborenen Kinder mindestens ein väterliches Halbgeschwister mit geringer Altersdifferenz hatten, d.h. entweder im selben Alter (74%) oder maximal zwei Jahre jünger oder älter als es selbst (15%). Wenn auch bei anderen Primatenarten die Reproduktion auf einige wenige Männchen beschränkt ist, dann sollte die Bedeutung der väterlichen Verwandtschaft für Primaten neu bewertet werden. Eine der wichtigsten Konsequenzen der ungleichen Reproduktion der Männchen wäre nämlich, dass viele Individuen mehr väterliche, als mütterliche Halbgeschwister in ihrem Leben haben. Zweitens, um den Einfluß der väterlichen Verwandtschaft auf die sozialen Beziehungen unter adulten Weibchen zu bewerten, wurden affiliative und aggressive Interaktionen von 34 Fokusweibchen und ihren sozialen Partnern beobachtet, die entweder ihre mütterlichen Halbschwestern, ihre väterlichen Halbschwestern oder nichtverwandte Weibchen waren. Die vorliegende Untersuchung bestätigte, dass mütterliche Halbschwestern die engsten affiliativen Beziehungen haben. Das wahrscheinlich wichtigste Resultat dieser Studie ist der Befund, dass adulte Weibchen deutlich häufiger affiliativ mit ihren väterlichen Halbschwestern als mit Nichtverwandten interagierten. Die Erkennung der väterlichen Halbschwestern war deutlicher unter Weibchen gleichen Alters als unter Weibchen unterschiedlichen Alters, wobei die affiliativen Interaktionen mit zunehmender Altersdifferenz (gemessen in Jahren) abnahmen. Dies deutet darauf hin, dass Altersnähe einen zusätzlichen regulierenden Einfluß auf affiliatives Verhalten hatte. Beweise dafür, dass sich väterliche Verwandte erkennen können, sind nur in Bezug auf affiliative Interaktionen, nicht aber auf dyadische Aggression gefunden worden, was eine kontextabhängige Verwandtenerkennung annehmen läßt. Drittens, bei der Einbeziehung weiterer Verwandtschaftskategorien zeigten die Daten, dass mütterliche Verwandte auch bei konstant gehaltenem Verwandtschaftsgrad deutlich gegenüber väterlichen Verwandten bevorzugt wurden. Dies weist darauf hin, dass die mütterliche Verwandtschaft in der untersuchten Gruppe einen größeren Einfluß auf die sozialen Beziehungen adulter Rhesusaffenweibchen hatte als die väterliche Verwandtschaft. Affiliative sowie aggressive Interaktionen nahmen mit sinkendem Verwandtschaftsgrad ab, aber entfernte Verwandte unterschieden einander immer noch von Nichtverwandten, was der Existenz einer Verwandschaftsschwelle widerspricht. Viertens, schließlich wurde die väterliche Verwandtschaft in Bezug auf Koalitionsbildungen untersucht. Eine Koalition wird gebildet, wenn ein Individuum in ein laufenden Konflikt zwischen zwei Kontrahenten eingreift, um eine Partei gegen die andere zu unterstützen. Weibliche Rhesusaffen unterstützten am häufigsten ihre mütterliche Halbschwestern. Außerdem unterstützten sie Nichtverwandte gleichen Alters häufiger als Nichtverwandte unterschiedlichen Alters. Weibchen unterstützten ihre väterlichen Halbschwestern nicht häufiger als Nichtverwandte, aber die Daten könnten auf einen indirekten Beweis der väterlichen Verwandtenerkennung hinweisen, da Weibchen dazu tendierten gegen ihre väterlichen Halbschwestern seltener zu intervenieren als gegen Nichtverwandte. Dieser Befund könnte durch die Tatsache bedingt sein, dass väterliche Halbschwestern sehr unterschiedliche Dominanzränge einnehmen können, währenddessen mütterliche Halbschwestern immer benachbarte Dominanzränge haben, was zur Folge hat, dass ein rangtiefes Weibchen ihrer väterlichen Halbschwester nicht wirklich helfen kann, da sie ein viel höheres Vergeltungsrisiko auf sich nimmt, wenn sie in einen Konflikt zwischen zwei ranghöhere Kontrahenten interveniert. Als einen Kompromiß könnten Weibchen statt dessen vermeiden gegen ihre väterlichen Halbschwestern zu intervenieren, was darauf hindeuten könnte, dass individuelle Zwänge bezüglich der eigenen Konkurrenzfähigkeit eine bedeutende Rolle bei der Koalitionsbildung spielen. Mütterliche und väterliche Halbschwestern zeigten zudem einen stärkeren Trend zu "reciprocity" und "interchange" als Nichtverwandte und gaben einander einen höheren Anteil an kostenintensiven Unterstützungen. Schließlich unterstreichen die Ergebnisse dieser Studie deutlich, dass Vertrautheit zwischen Individuen durch frühkindliche Bindungen mindestens auf zwei Wegen erfolgen kann: (i) Mütter vermitteln Vertrautheit zwischen ihren Kindern (die mütterliche Halbgeschwister sind) aufgrund der durch die Laktation bedingten engen Mutter-Kind Bindung und (ii) Altersnähe vermittelt mehr Vertrautheit zwischen Altersgenossen (die entweder väterliche Halbgeschwister oder Nichtverwandte sind), die wichtige Lebensabschnitte wie z.B. Kindheit, Menstruationsbeginn, Schwangerschaft oder Mutterschaft zu ähnlichen Zeiten durchlaufen, während Weibchen unterschiedlichen Alters dies nicht tun. In jedem Fall brauchen väterliche Halbgeschwister neben der Vertrautheit zu ihren Altersgenossen noch einen zusätzlichen Mechanismus wie z.B. das "phenotype matching" um innerhalb ihrer Altersgenossen wirklich zwischen väterlichen Halbgeschwistern und Nichtverwandten zu unterscheiden. / The impact of maternal kinship on social behaviour has been studied in detail for many primate species, but it is difficult to assess the importance of kin selection in shaping the evolution of social behaviour when studies are limited to maternal kin, completely ignoring paternal kinship. This thesis aimed to investigate the extent of paternal kinship and its impact on the social relationships among adult females in one group of free-ranging rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) living on the island of Cayo Santiago. The main findings can be summarised as follows: Firstly, in order to access the extent of paternal kinship, paternity has been analysed for all infants of the study group born between 1993 and 1998. Results revealed that male reproduction was highly skewed over the study period as few males have sired a high number of offspring, but the majority of potential sires have sired no or few offspring. This created a kinship structure in which nearly all animals born during the study period had at least one paternal half-sibling in close age proximity, i.e., either of the same age (74%) or within a two-year age difference of themselves (15%). Assuming that male reproductive success is also skewed in other primate species, then the importance of paternal kinship in primate societies should be re-emphasised. One of the most important consequences of male reproductive skew is that many individuals will have more paternal than maternal half-siblings during their life time. Secondly, in order to access the impact of paternal kinship on the social relationships among adult females, focal data on affiliation and aggression have been collected on 34 adult females with respect to their social partners who were either their maternal half-sisters, paternal half-sisters or unrelated females. The present study confirmed that the closest affiliative relationships characterise maternal half-sisters. Probably the most important result of this study was the finding that adult females were significantly more affiliative with their paternal half-sisters than with their non-kin. The recognition of paternal sisters was more pronounced among females of the same age than among females of different age, with a decrease in affiliation as the exact age difference (measured in years) increased among paternal half-sisters. This indicates that age proximity had an additional regulatory effect upon affiliative behaviour. However, evidence for paternal kin discrimination was only found with respect to affiliation, but not with respect to dyadic aggression suggesting context-dependent kin discrimination. Thirdly, when more kin categories were included in the analysis, adult females showed a strong bias towards maternal kin in comparison to paternal kin. This bias towards maternal kin when the degree of relatedness was held constantly suggests, that maternal kinship had a larger impact on the social relationships among adult female rhesus macaques than paternal kinship at least in the study group. Both affiliation and aggression declined with decreasing degrees of relatedness, but distant kin still differentiated each other from non-kin contradicting the existence of a relatedness threshold. Fourthly, paternal kinship was finally investigated with respect to coalition formation. A coalition is formed when an individual intervenes in an ongoing conflict between two opponents in order to support one party against the other. Female rhesus macaques intervened most often on behalf of their maternal half-sisters. In addition, unrelated female peers supported each other more often than unrelated female non-peers. Females did not support their paternal half-sisters more often than non-kin, but data may indicate indirect evidence for paternal kin discrimination as females tended to target their paternal half-sisters less often than non-kin. This finding might be due to the fact, that paternal half-sisters can be very different in rank, while maternal half-sisters are of adjacent rank, implying that a low-ranking female cannot provide actual help to her paternal half-sisters, as she may risk a higher probability of retaliation when intervening in a conflict between two higher-ranking opponents. As a compromise, females may instead avoid to target their paternal half-sisters, suggesting that constraints to an individuals own competitive ability play an important role in coalition formation. Maternal and paternal half-sisters showed a stronger trend in reciprocity and interchange than non-kin and also provided a higher proportion of costly interventions towards each other. Finally, the results of the present study strongly suggest that familiarity among individuals can arise through association in early development by at least two alternatives: (i) mothers mediating familiarity among their offspring (which are maternal half-siblings) caused by the close mother-offspring relationship during lactation and (ii) age proximity is mediating familiarity among age mates (including both paternal related and unrelated peers) as peers go through important life history stages such as infancy, menarche, pregnancy or motherhood at similar times while females of different age do not. In any case, paternal half-siblings additionally need a mechanism such as phenotype matching to discriminate paternal half-siblings from non-kin even within their peer group.

Adopted individuals have an increased risk for a variety of psychopathological disorders. Studies of the effects adoption in humans are difficult to perform because of the difficulty separating genetic risk and treatment effects. This is a developmental study investigating the effects of at birth adoption using a nonhuman primate model. Three experimental paradigms were used to assess maternal treatment, stress-related behavior, and physiology late in infancy and again later in life. Rhesus monkeys were reared for their first six months of life by either their biological mother or an unrelated, lactating adult female. Adoptions occurred immediately following birth. At six months of age, both groups were exposed to four, 4-day mother-infant separations. Behavioral observations and plasma stress hormones were used to compare the two group's responses to the separation stressor. Maternal treatments were also compared. In a second experiment performed about three years later when subjects were adolescents or young adults, an unfamiliar intruder was placed outside their home pen and stress-related behavioral responses were again measured. In the third experiment, adolescent subjects were allowed free access to a sweetened alcohol solution and daily alcohol consumption was measured across 8-10 weeks. Analyses showed that adopted subjects exhibited more behavior withdrawal and higher ACTH during the Acute and Chronic phases of the separation than infants reared by their biological mothers. This persisted when subjects were again tested with an intruder stressor 1-3 years later, with adopted subjects still showing more behavioral withdrawal during the Intruder Challenge stressor. Adopted subjects also differ in their relationship with their mother, showing more independence at an early age in non-stressful environments. Paradoxically, alcohol intake was lower in adolescents raised by an adoptive mother. Differences in maternal treatment and mismatches in temperament between the adopted mother and her infant are potential mechanisms that lead to the increased stress and anxiety in subjects raised by an adopted mother.

Nous possédons la faculté de reconnaître individuellement des centaines d'individus. Ceci nous permet d'évoluer dans une société complexe dont l'organisation est en partie forgée par les relations interindividuelles. La reconnaissance individuelle peut être réalisée par l'identification de divers éléments distincts, comme le visage ou la voix, qui forment chez l'Homme une seule représentation conceptuelle de l'identité de la personne. Nous avons démontré que les singes rhésus, comme les humains, reconnaissent individuellement leurs congénères familiers, mais également les individus humains connus. Ceci montre que la reconnaissance fine est une compétence partagée par un éventail d'espèces de primates pouvant servir de fondement à la vie en réseaux sociaux sophistiqués, et également que le cerveau s'adapte de façon flexible pour reconnaître les individus d'autres espèces lorsque ceux-ci ont une importance socioécologique. Par la suite, au niveau neuronal, ce projet a mis en lumière que les connaissances sociales concernant autrui sont représentées par les neurones hippocampiques ainsi que par les neurones inférotemporaux. Ainsi nous avons observé l'existence de neurones sélectifs aux visages non seulement dans le cortex inferotemporal, comme ceci a été décrit précédemment, mais également dans l'hippocampe. La comparaison des propriétés de ces neurones au sein de ces deux structures, suggère que les deux régions joueraient des rôles complémentaires au cours de la reconnaissance individuelle. Enfin, parce que l'hippocampe est une structure qui a évolué à des degrés divers chez différents mammifères pour soutenir la mémoire autobiographique et les représentations spatiales, la caractérisation des différents types de neurones et de leur connectivité a fourni un cadre commun pour comparer les fonctions de l'hippocampe à travers les espèces

The mammalian odorant receptor (OR) repertoire is an attractive model to study evolution, because ORs have been subjected to rapid evolution between species, presumably caused by changes of the olfactory system to adapt to the environment. However, functional assessment of ORs in related species remains largely untested. Here we investigated the functional properties of primate and rodent ORs to determine how well evolutionary distance predicts functional characteristics. Using human and mouse ORs with previously identified ligands, we cloned 18 OR orthologs from chimpanzee and rhesus macaque and 17 mouse-rat orthologous pairs that are broadly representative of the OR repertoire. We functionally characterized the in vitro responses of ORs to a wide panel of odors and found similar ligand selectivity but dramatic differences in response magnitude. 87% of human-primate orthologs and 94% of mouse-rat orthologs showed differences in receptor potency (EC50) and/or efficacy (dynamic range) to an individual ligand. Notably dN/dS ratio, an indication of selective pressure during evolution, does not predict functional similarities between orthologs. Additionally, we found that orthologs responded to a common ligand 82% of the time, while human OR paralogs of the same subfamily responded to the common ligand only 33% of the time. Our results suggest that, while OR orthologs tend to show conserved ligand selectivity, their potency and/or efficacy dynamically change during evolution, even in closely related species. These functional changes in orthologs provide a platform for examining how the evolution of ORs can meet species-specific demands. / Dissertation

Vivre en groupe implique une cohésion et une synchronisation des activités des membres d’un groupe. Dans ce contexte, des individus avec des besoins pouvant être différents doivent décider conjointement où et quand se déplacer collectivement. Alors que les comportements de recrutement et de vote ont été relativement bien étudiés chez les primates et que les processus auto-organisés ont été démontrés dans des grands groupes, peu de chercheurs ont étudié l’existence de processus simples dans des petits groupes structurés d’individus aux capacités cognitives avancées. De même, alors qu’il a été démontré que les relations sociales d’une espèce conditionnaient la forme de certains comportements tels que les comportements d’agression, de réconciliation ou de toilettage, aucune étude n’a démontré cette influence sur le type de consensus d’une espèce. Afin de tester ces différentes hypothèses, j’ai étudié deux espèces de macaques au style social contrasté, le macaque rhésus (Macaca mulatta) ayant une hiérarchie stricte et un népotisme élevé et le macaque de Tonkean (M. tonkeana) connu pour être tolérant. Les résultats de cette thèse montrent donc l’existence conjointe de processus auto-organisés et de processus plus complexes et intentionnels chez les macaques. Ils démontrent également l’influence du système social sur la prise de décision collective, en termes de dominance et de parenté. Le macaque de Tonkean présente un consensus équitablement partagé et les membres du groupe s’organisent au sein du déplacement en fonction des relations affiliatives, contrairement au macaque rhésus pour lequel le consensus ne semble que partiellement partagé, en faveur des individus dominants et l’organisation des individus biaisée en faveur de la parenté.

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Whilst there has been a recent increase in interest in using positive reinforcement training for laboratory-housed primates, there remains a reluctance to put into practice training programmes. Much of this reticence seems to stem from lack of expertise in the running of training programmes, and a perception that training requires a large time investment, with concurrent staff costs. The aim of this thesis was to provide practical recommendations for the use of training programmes in laboratories, providing primate users and carestaff with background information needed to successfully implement training programmes whilst improving the welfare of the animals in their care. Training was carried out with two species, cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis) and common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) in three different research laboratories to ensure practicability was as wide ranging as possible. Training success and the time investment required were closely related to the primate's temperament, most notably an individual's willingness to interact with humans, in both common marmosets and cynomolgus macaques. Age and sex however had no effect on an individual's trainability. The training of common marmosets was more successful than that with cynomolgus macaques, possibly due to differences in early experience and socialisation. Positive reinforcement training helped both species to cope with the stress of cage change or cleaning, with the monkeys showing less anxiety-related behaviour following the training programme than before. Involving two trainers in the training process did not affect the speed at which common marmosets learned to cooperate with transport box training, but behavioural observations showed that initial training sessions with a new trainer led to animals experiencing some anxiety. This however was relatively transient. Whilst the training of common marmosets to cooperate with hand capture was possible, there seemed little benefit in doing so as the monkeys did not show a reduced behavioural or physiological stress response to trained capture as compared to hand capture prior to training. However strong evidence was found that following both training and positive human interactions the marmosets coped better with capture and stress was reduced. It is recommended that an increased use of early socialisation would benefit laboratory-housed primates, and would also help improve the success of training. Further, the time investment required shows that training is practicable in the laboratory for both species, and that positive reinforcement training is an important way of improving their welfare likely through reducing boredom and fear.

No description available.