Partant principalement du constat du supposé échec des politiques participatives et des incitations indirectes à la conservation, les paiements pour services environnementaux (PSE) sont aujourd'hui promus à Madagascar pour la protection de la biodiversité. Ils y prennent la forme de "contrats de conservation" ou de contrats de "suivi écologique participatif". Pour que les effets des contrats PSE soient optimaux et pour qu'ils ne présentent plus les mêmes faiblesses que les anciens outils de protection de la biodiversité, il faut qu'ils soient à la fois efficaces par rapport à un objectif fixé et équitables (selon la théorie de la Justice de Rawls, la notion de capabilité de Sen et le rariny et hitsiny malgache). Mais les contrats PSE locaux à Madagascar ne sont pas efficaces et équitables. De plus, la recherche d'efficacité peut parfois rendre les contrats moins équitables. Néanmoins, améliorés, les PSE peuvent être un outil utile. Pour pouvoir améliorer cette efficacité ainsi que l'équité des contrats PSE, il faut l'entendre différemment. Le contrat PSE ne devrait ainsi plus avoir un unique objectif. Il devrait concourir à un objectif plus large. Dans ce cas, un contrat PSE n'aura plus une portée limitée : il sera ainsi un contrat "PSE de seconde génération" dont l'objectif est le développement durable.

Le complexe alcalin intrusif d'Ambatofinandrahana est constitué d'une association complexe de roches gabbroïques à syénitiques, granitiques, marquées par un caractère potassique à sodi-potassique. Il s'agit de roches cafémiques alcalines (classification de Debon, Lefort, 1988). Les syénites sont à minéraux ferro-magnésiens sodiques accompagnés de minéraux riches en T.R. (monazite, sphène). D'après les relations de terrain, ces syénites sont considérées comme postérieures aux gabbros d'Ifasina. L'étude des terres rares dans les syénites montre le cogénétisme de ces roches (spectres sans anomalie en Eu, riches en LREE). Le granite de Vohimavo paraît lié à une lignée magmatique différente. Datées à 455 m.a par isochrone Rb/Sr, ces syénites représentent les dernières manifestations magmatiques de Madagascar avant celles du Crétacé (N.W de Madagascar). D'après Sr0 ces syénites présentent une origine avec participation crustale. Au sein de ces roches alcalines, des minéralisations en T.R (bastnaesite, monazite et chevkinite) se présentent en filons de roches siliceuses ou en éluvions. Ces minéralisations sont de type hydrothermal et non pegmatitique. Une origine alcaline a été démontrée par l'étude géochimique de ces minéraux. En effet, ces minéraux fractionnent de façon différentielle les lanthanides selon les milieux géochimiques dans lesquels ils se forment.

<p>The objective of this research was to investigate the relationships between the political change and the access policy changes in Madagascar since independence. In this study qualitative and quantitative data were used. The qualitative research consisted of eleven in-depth interviews and the collection of policy documents from 1960 to 2008. Open-ended questionnaires were utilized to collect data and to achieve the objectives of the research. Policy documents were analyzed to identify government policy changes. The main findings from the research showed that access policy changed with each major change in political leadership. Four major political periods and four respective main access policy changes were identified from 1960 to 2008. Higher education policy in general changed when there was a major change in presidential leadership. The main conclusions of this study were that access policy changes were the result of major changes in presidential leadership and that in spite of rhetoric to the contrary, universities did not have the autonomy to resist changes in access policy because of the top-down state system and the institutional financial dependence on the national government.</p>

Le présent travail a pour objectif d'expliquer la structure de financement des entreprises malgaches, c'est-à-dire, la répartition entre les dettes et les capitaux propres dans la totalité des capitaux qu'elles utilisent pour financer leurs activités. En partant de la théorie que les décisions d'octroi de financement des établissements financiers, en tant qu'investisseurs rationnels, tiennent compte de deux paramètres qui sont le risque et la rentabilité espérée de l'investissement, le travail vise à étudier l'effet du risque sur la politique financière des entreprises. Le risque est appréhendé non seulement en fonction de la performance financière mais également par la performance non financière, notamment la qualité du management de l'entreprise. L'échantillon est composé de 100 grandes entreprises qui appartiennent à divers secteurs d'activité. La période d'analyse est de 5 ans allant de 2001 à 2005. Les résultats indiquent que le risque opérationnel serait un déterminant significatif de la structure de financement. Les établissements financiers se focaliseraient sur la performance à long terme des entreprises et ne tiendraient pas compte des améliorations de performance à court terme. Les résultats révèlent également l'intérêt des pratiques de bonne gouvernance pour la confiance des investisseurs. Les établissements financiers seraient attentifs aux mesures prises par les entreprises pour la protection des parties prenantes dans leur processus d'évaluation d'investissement. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : Structure financière, Pays en développement, Risque d'affaire, Performance financière, Qualité du management.

Land deals are common in resource-rich countries and have increased during the past years. Contributing factors to the augmentation of land investments in agriculture and forestry are known to be climate change, rising global food prices, rising income levels and changing diets. The international debate on the topic points at the fact that these types of investments create not only great opportunities but also risks and challenges to the host countries, which often have high poverty rates. In order for land deals to be beneficial for all involved actors there is a voiced need for information about the performances and processes of large-scale land deals already at early stages. The objective of this study is to identify and understand the complexities at household level in relation to a new land deal and to explain how these complexities might hinder positive impacts on rural development that this land deal can entail. This thesis draws on a field study of one particular new land deal, Rainbow Oil, in Madagascar where the phenomenon has become substantial during the past few years. The material has been collected through semi-structured interviews and observations as part of an ethnographic approach. Interviews have been made with the investor and authorities at multiple levels but mainly with peasants in the concerned villages. The findings of the study have been analyzed using the sustainable livelihoods framework which permits the analysis to be both holistic and people-centered. Results from the study indicate that hopes for rural development due to the land deal of Rainbow Oil are evident but that certain factors in the peasants’ access to livelihood assets seem to hinder them from engaging in the land use change. Concluding remarks from the results of the study demonstrate that the investor might not have recognized the necessary prerequisites for a successful involvement of the local populations. Deficiencies in the communication between the actors seem to have created uncertainties and skepticism that can further impede both the development of the land use change itself and in turn also the possible development of particularly the concerned villages.

<p>A fundamental goal in the diverse field of evolutionary biology is reconstructing the historical processes that facilitated lineage diversification and the current geographic distribution of species diversity. Oceanic islands provide a view of evolutionary processes that may otherwise be obscured by the complex biogeographic histories of continental systems, and have thus provided evolutionary biology with some of its most lasting and significant theories. The Indian Ocean island of Madagascar is home to an extraordinarily diverse and endemic biota, and reconstructing the historical processes responsible for this diversity has consumed countless academic careers. While the flowering plant genus <italic>Coffea</italic> is but one lineage contributing to Madagascar's staggering floral diversity, it is representative of the common evolutionary theme of adaptive radiation and local endemism on the island. In this dissertation, I employ the genus <italic>Coffea</italic> as a model for understanding historical biogeographic processes in the Indian Ocean using methods of molecular phylogenetics and population genetics. In the molecular phylogenetic study of <italic>Coffea</italic> presented in chapter 2, I show that Madagascan <italic>Coffea</italic> diversity is likely the product of at least two independent colonization events from Africa, a result that contradicts current hypotheses for the single origin of this group. </p><p>Species of <italic>Coffea</italic> are known to exhibit self-incompatibly, which can have a dramatic affect on the geographic distribution of plant genetic diversity. In chapter 3, I identify the genetic mechanism of self-incompatibility in <italic>Coffea</italic> as homologous to the canonical eudicot S-RNase system. Baker's Rule suggests that self-incompatible lineages are very unlikely to colonize oceanic islands, and in chapter 4, I test this hypothesis by characterizing the strength of self-incompatibility and comparing S-RNase polymorphism in <italic>Coffea</italic> populations endemic to isolated Indian Ocean islands (Grande Comore and Mauritius) with that of Madagascan/African species. My findings suggest that while island populations show little evidence for genetic bottleneck in S-RNase allelic diversity, Mauritian endemic <italic>Coffea</italic> may have evolved a type of "leaky" self-incompatibility allowing self-fertilization at some unknown rate. Through the application of traditional phylogenetic methods and novel data from the self-incompatibly locus, my dissertation contributes a wealth of new information regarding the evolutionary and biogeographic history of <italic>Coffea</italic> in the Indian Ocean.</p> / Dissertation

Thèse de doctorat : Sciences du langage : Rennes 2 : 2009. / DVD d'accompagnement non diffusés.

Dytiscidae, contains numerous endemic and non-endemic species on Madagascar. Their evolutionary history is largely unknown on the island. Herein, I use analyses to infer phylogenetic relationship among groups of diving beetles, with a focus on the subfamily Dytiscinae and endemic species in two other groups of Dytiscidae. Paper I represents the first phylogenetic reconstruction focusing on the tribe Aciliini based on molecular data. Several commonly used molecular markers, as well as a new marker for Hydradephagan beetles, were evaluated in this study. Our analyses suggest that six genera within Aciliini are monophyletic. The most basal clades with Neotropical and Afrotropical taxa suggest a possible Gondwanan origin. Evaluation of gene fragments indicated CAD to be the most informative marker. Paper II focuses on colonization and radiation events of large bodied endemic diving beetles of the tribes Cybistrini and Hydaticini on Madagascar. Colonization events were inferred from dated phylogenetic trees and ancestral biogeographical reconstructions. Our results suggest both multiple colonizations, and out-of-Madagascar dispersal events, mostly during the Miocene and Oligocene. In paper III, we revised the Rhantus species of Madagascar. We used both molecular and morphological data to evaluate species hypothesis and emphasized the value of Manjakatompo – one of the last remaining fragments of central highland forests. In Paper IV we reconstruct the phylogeny and use Species Distribution Modelling for the endemic genus Pachynectes in Madagascar. Our sampling has discovered that the species diversity of Pachynectes is at least three times higher than previously believed. It seems that allopatric speciation was the main driver, which led to the diversity of Pachynectes. Our results suggest that climatic gradients and the five main biomes were a better predictor than watershed systems in explaining the distribution pattern and speciation between sister species. / Dykarskalbaggar i familjen Dytiscidae finns över hela världen och kan hittas i såväl temporära som permanenta vattensamlingar, i rinnande såväl som i stillastående akvatiska habitat. Bland dykarskalbaggarna finns ett hundratal både endemiska och icke-endemiska arter på Madagaskar. Deras evolutionära historia på denna mytomspunna ö är dock i stort sett okänd. I den här avhandlingen använder jag molekylära data och analyser för att härleda evolutionära släktskap, s.k. fylogenier eller släktträd, för olika grupper av dykarskalbaggar med fokus på underfamiljen Dytiscinae samt endemiska arter från två andra grupper på Madagaskar. Artikel 1 är den första molekylär-fylogenetiska studien som gjort på tribuset Aciliini. Flera molekylära markörer (delar av gener) användes samt utvärderades, inklusive den nya markören CAD för Hydradephaga skalbaggar. Analysen bekräftar att tribuset Aciliini är en monofyletisk grupp (naturlig grupp som härstammar från en gemensam förfader) samt att Eretini är närmaste släktingen. Alla sex släkten med flera arter i tribuset stöddes också som monofyletiska, det sjunde släktet har bara en art. De mest basala grupperna i trädet utgjordes av Neotropiska och Afrotropiska arter vilket antyder ett ursprung på Gondwana kontinenten. Denna slutsats var dock beroende av för vilken nod i trädet (av två möjliga) som ett fossil användes som kalibreringspunkt. Utvärderingen av de olika genfragmenten ledde till slutsatsen att CAD var den mest informativa genen tätt följd av en annan nukleär proteinkodande gen, WNT. Artikel 2 fokuserar på kolonisations- och artbildningshändelser för två grupper av relativt stora dykarskalbaggar. Denna studie bygger på två tidigare publicerade dataset där vi lade till Madagaskars arter. Kolonisationshändelser härleddes genom daterade molekylära släktträd samt rekonstruktion av förfäders biogeografiska utbredningsområden. Resultaten visade både på ett flertal separata koloniseringshändelser men också "ut-ur-Madagaskar" spridning, framförallt under tidsperioden Miocen-Oligocen. Studien visade också att inga koloniseringshändelser lett till några signifikanta artradiationer på Madagaskar i dessa två grupper. I Artikel 3 reviderar vi arterna av släktet Rhantus som finns på Madagaskar, vilka alla är begränsade i sin utbredning till den centrala högplatån på Madagaskar. Vi använder både morfologi och molekylära data för att testa arthypoteser samt bestyrker det bevarandebiologiska värdet av Manjakatompo-skogen, ett av de allra sista fragmenten av skog på den centrala högplatån. I Artikel 4 härleder vi släktskapet för det endemiska rinnande-vatten släktet Pachynectes samt analyserar de ingående arternas utbredning genom modellering. Våra insamlingar runt om Madagaskar har visat att artdiversiteten i släktet är minst tre gånger så hög som man tidigare trott. Genom att integrera släktskapsanalys med utbredningsmodellering söker vi få en inblick i vad som drivit artbildningen i en endemisk artradiation. Allopatrisk artbildning verkar varit den huvudsakliga typen av artbildning inom Pachynectes. Vi testade även två huvudhypoteser som söker förklara mikroendemisk artbildning generellt på Madagaskar. Våra resultat visar att klimatgradienter och de fem huvudsakliga biomen på Madagaskar verkar ha en långt bättre förklaringsgrad än stora floder och avrinningsområden för att förklara Pachynectes arternas utbredning och släktskap. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

Considering the high rate of endemism in Madagascan organisms, which are mostly restricted to forest ecosystems, and the accelerating rate of deforestation affecting the island, it is critical to understand the effects of forest fragmentation on Malagasy biota to allow for better management of species within ecosystems. Ecological and human-induced changes have led to the disappearance of forest from vast areas of the island, including on the central High Plateau. The Ambohitantely Special Reserve, located on the central High Plateau at 1500 m asl, was selected as the study site for research on the effects of forest fragmentation on forestependent bird species in Madagascar. The Ambohitantely special Reserve covers 5600 ha of which 50% are natural forest, 35% are anthropogenic grassland savannah and 15% are exotic plantations. The forest, described as East Malagasy moist montane forest, is 2737 ha in area, of which 1487 ha are comprised of 513 forest fragments scattered around the largest block totalling 1250 ha. To investigate the effects of forest fragmentation on forest-dependent bird species, seven forest fragments were selected, ranging from 0.64 ha to 136 ha, in addition to the largest block, referred to as the control site. The bird species composition and relative abundance in different-sized fragments were assessed in reference to the control site, by using a combination of two standardized sampling methods: mistnetting and point-counts. A total of 1804 mistnet-days were accrued, 1026 in the control site and 778 in the seven forest fragments, leading to the capture of 491 birds of 26 species. A total of 160 point-counts was made at 39 different sample plots totalling 53 h 29 min of censusing, and a record of 30 species. A total of 72 bird species including 54 breeding forest affinities of the avifauna of Ambohitantely were defined with reference to 32 forest sites scattered across Madagascar. The species composition in all fragments are fully nested subsets of the control site and the species distribution in the fragments does not represent random subsets of the control site. The analysis of the bird communities in different size fragments indicates that the occurrence of bird species reflects a regular pattern of species extinction in relation to decreasing size of forest fragment. Species composition is discussed in reference to Ambohitantely's long history of isolation that may have led to extirpation of bird species from this site. The higher bird taxa decrease in number or totally disappear as a result of their ecological specialization. Equally, they are the most affected by edge effects (e. g. Atelornis pittoides). The main ecological trends in disappearance or extinction of species is a decrease in the number of small-bodied insectivorous understorey species and mid- and upper-stratum small-bodied insectivorous and nectarivorous species. Insectivorous species are particularly affected by forest fragmentation and three forest-dependent species found in Ambohitantely Forest are particularly sensitive to forest fragmentation: Newtonia amphichroa, Calicalicus madagascariensis, and Cyanolanius madagascarinus. The biological (flora species composition and forest structure) and the physical (temperature, moisture, and light) changes generated by the fragmentation of the forest have a greater impact on highly specialized foraging guilds and this explains the pattern of current bird species composition in Ambohitantely Forest. The influence of forest fragmentation on the altitudinal migration process is debated and conservation measures such as the establishment of forest corridors are proposed to improve the protection of biota found in the Ambohitantely Special Reserve. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1995.

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