Στην διατριβή αυτή επιχειρείται µια συστηµατική και σε βάθος µελέτη της χηµικής και ορυκτολογικής σύστασης, καθώς και φυσικών και τεχνολογικών ιδιοτήτων των διαφόρων ελληνικών µαγνησιακών υλικών. Τα υλικά αυτά παρήχθησαν από τον µαγνησίτη της Β. Εύβοιας στο εργοστάσιο της ΒΙΟΜΑΓΝ στο Μαντούδι Ευβοίας, προκειµένου να εξαχθούν συµπεράσµατα όχι µόνο για τη βελτίωση των τελικών προϊόντων αλλά και για το σχεδιασµό και παραγωγή νέων προϊόντων, έτσι ώστε τα ελληνικά βασικά πυρίµαχα υλικά να παραµείνουν στην πρωτοπορία των διεθνών εξελίξεων. Συγκεκριµένα µελετήθηκαν: Πρώτες ύλες µαγνησίας. Εξετάστηκαν ελληνικές ποιότητες δίπυρης µαγνησίας, οι οποίες πορούν να διαχωριστούν σε δύο κατηγορίες σύµφωνα µε το µέσο του εµπλουτισµού του αγνησίτη από τον οποίο προέρχονται : Α) Οι ποιότητες δίπυρης µαγνησίας Ε21Α, Ε12Ε, ΝΕ3, οι οποίες παρήχθησαν από ικροκρυσταλλικό µαγνησίτη µε έψηση σε θερµοκρασίες 1850-1900οC σε περιστροφικούς κάµινους, ενώ πριν την έψησή του ο µαγνησίτης εµπλουτίστηκε µε οπτικό διαχωρισµό, βαρέα διάµεσα και µαγνητικό διαχωρισµό. Β) Οι ποιότητες δίπυρης µαγνησίας υψηλής καθαρότητας Μagflot Super Α και Magflot A1 που παρήχθησαν από µικροκρυσταλλικό µαγνησίτη εµπλουτισµένο µε τη µέθοδο της επίπλευσης, η οποία εξασφαλίζει οµοιογένεια και χαµηλό ποσοστό πυριτικών. Το παραγόµενο εµπλούτισµα µετατρέπεται σε καυστική µαγνησία η οποία ακολούθως πρικετοποιείται και τελικά ψήνεται σε φρεατώδη κάµινο στους 2000-2200οC. Μελετήθηκε επίσης, για λόγους σύγκρισης µε τα ελληνικά υλικά, Τετηγµένη µαγνησία, η οποία προέρχεται από την Κίνα Ποιότητες εµπορικών µαγνησιακών πλίνθων της ΒΙΟΜΑΓΝ, MbE21A και MbΜagflot Super A µε πρώτες ύλες δίπυρη µαγνησία Ε21Α και Μagflot Super A αντίστοιχα. Επίσης µελετήθηκε µπορικό µαγνησιοχρωµιτικό πυρίµαχο µε πρώτες ύλες Μagflot Super A και χρωµίτη Αφρικής. Νέες σπινελικές συνθέσεις και νέα µαγνησιοσπινελικά πυρίµαχα που παρήχθησαν στα πλαίσια της διατριβής, σε ηµιβιοµηχανική κλίµακα.Η χηµική σύσταση των πρώτων υλών που εξετάστηκαν µπορεί να περιγραφεί στα πλαίσια του συστήµατος MgO-CaO-SiO2, δεδοµένου ότι περιέχουν πολύ χαµηλές ποσότητες Fe2O3 και Al2O3. Αν και o λόγος τους CaO/SiO2 µπορεί να χρησιµοποιηθεί για την πρόβλεψη των ορυκτολογικών παραγενέσεών τους, λεπτοµερείς αναλύσεις µε περιθλασιµετρία ακτίνων-Χ, οπτική και ηλεκτρονική µικροσκοπία έδειξαν σηµαντικές παρεκκλίσεις από τις αναµενόµενες φάσεις. Οι µικροδοµές ποικίλουν αρκετά ως προς τον δεσµό MgO-MgO, τις ποσότητες και τις συστάσεις των φάσεων των πυριτικών δεσµών, αλλά και το µέγεθος των κρυστάλλων του περικλάστου. Οι ποιότητες Magflot και Τετηγµένης µαγνησίας Κίνας περιέχουν µικρότερα ποσοστά δευτερευουσών φάσεων από τις ποιότητες Ε21Α, Ε12Ε και ΝΕ3. Ο χηµισµός των ποιοτήτων Ε21Α, Ε12Ε και ΝΕ3 ευνοεί το σχηµατισµό δευτερευουσών ασβεστοπυριτικών φάσεων χαµηλού σηµείου τήξεως (όπως C3MS2, CMS) που µειώνουν την πυριµαχικότητα των υλικών. Η διαλυτότητα του CaO στο περίκλαστο ποικίλει µεταξύ των κρυστάλλων του ίδιου δείγµατος, ενώ ο σίδηρος συγκεντρώνεται στο περίκλαστο σχηµατίζοντας βουστίτη. Οι δεκαοκτώ νέες σπινελικές συνθέσεις που παρήχθησαν στα πλαίσια αυτής της διατριβής σε πιλοτική µονάδα στη ΒΙΟΜΑΓΝ στο Μαντούδι Ευβοίας, περιέχουν αλούµινα από 50% έως και 70% και ως προσθετικά, είτε πυριτικό ζιρκόνιο (0,5-2%) ή χρωµίτη (2-5%). Αύξηση του ποσοστού του Al2O3 στις σπινελικές συνθέσεις µε πυριτικό ζιρκόνιο αλλά και σε εκείνες µε χρωµίτη, οδηγεί σε αύξηση της φαινόµενης πυκνότητας καθώς και σε αύξηση του ποσοστού του σπινελίου. Το σταθεροποιητικό προσθετικό του πυριτικού ζιρκονίου επιδρά στο σχηµατισµό µιας πυρίµαχης φάσης υψηλού σηµείου τήξεως, CaOZrO2, η οποία ρυθµίζει την ποσότητα και το είδος των υπολοίπων δευτερευουσών φάσεων που σχηµατίζονται. Το Cr2O3 στις συνθέσεις σπινελίου µε προσθετικό χρωµίτη δεσµεύεται κυρίως στο πλέγµα του σπινελίου αυξάνοντας την πυκνότητά του, ενώ δρα και ως φύτρο σχηµατισµού του σπινελίου. Παράλληλα οι άµεσοι δεσµοί διάχυσης είναι ισχυρότεροι σε σχέση µε εκείνους των κρυστάλλων σπινελίου στις σπινελικές συνθέσεις χωρίς χρωµίτη και αυξάνουν την αντοχή του σπινελίου στη χηµική διάβρωση από τήγµατα µεταλλουργικών σκωριών Οι δευτερεύουσες ασβεστοπυριτικές και ασβεστοαλουµινούχες φάσεις που ανιχνεύθηκαν στις δεκαοκτώ σπινελικές συνθέσεις κυµαίνονται σε πολύ χαµηλά επίπεδα, ενώ δεν αποτελούν όλες, φάσεις ισορροπίας. Από τις νέες σπινελικές συνθέσεις παρασκευάστηκαν έξι νέες ποιότητες µαγνησιοσπινελικών πυριµάχων. Σε κάθε µία από τις συνθέσεις µε 10 και 20 %Al2O3 χρησιµοποιήθηκαν ως πρώτες ύλες: 1. Μagflot και σπινελική σύνθεση τύπου R551z (µε 50% αλούµινα-50% Μafglot και προσθετικό πυριτικό ζιρκόνιο), 2. Magflot και σπινελική σύνθεση τύπου R559z (µε 70% αλούµινα-30% Μagflot και προσθετικό πυριτικό ζιρκόνιο), 3. Magflot και σπινελική σύνθεση τύπου R573cr (µε 70% αλούµινα-30% Μagflot και προσθετικό χρωµίτη). Οι νέες συνθέσεις των µαγνησιοσπινελικών πυριµάχων παρασκευάστηκαν µε σκοπό τη βελτίωση της συµπεριφοράς τους στους θερµοκρασιακούς αιφνιδιασµούς, στη διάβρωση από τήγµατα αλλά και στην αντοχή τους στην εκτριβή µε στόχο την εφαρµογή τους στη βιοµηχανία (ως πορώδη εµβύσµατα για παραγωγή υπερκαθαρού χάλυβα, για αντικατάσταση των ανδαλουσιτικών πυριµάχων στους µεταλλουργικούς κάδους, για αντικατάσταση των µαγνησιοχρωµιτικών πυριµάχων στους κάµινους της τσιµεντοβιοµηχανίας κλπ.). Στις νέες συνθέσεις των µαγνησιοσπινελικών πυριµάχων πραγµατοποιήθηκαν χηµικές, ορυκτολογικές αναλύσεις καθώς και µετρήσεις φαινόµενης πυκνότητας, συντελεστή θερµικής διαστολής αλλά και δοκιµές σε θλίψη εν ψυχρώ. Από τα αποτελέσµατα που προέκυψαν οι ποιότητες S-MAL37z-20 και S-MAL37cr-20, που περιέχουν υψηλής πυκνότητας σπινελικές συνθέσεις (R559z και R573cr αντίστοιχα) και περιεκτικότητα σε Αl2O3 στη µάζα τους της τάξεως 20%, προτείνονται ως περισσότερο κατάλληλες σε σχέση µε τις υπόλοιπες, για αντοχή στους θερµοκρασιακούς αιφνιδιασµούς, και στη διάβρωση από σκωρίες, ενώ οι S-MAL55z-10, S-MAL55z-20 και S-MAL55cr-10 θεωρούνται περισσότερο κατάλληλες για αντοχή σε θλίψηΗ χηµική σύσταση των πρώτων υλών που εξετάστηκαν µπορεί να περιγραφεί στα πλαίσια του συστήµατος MgO-CaO-SiO2, δεδοµένου ότι περιέχουν πολύ χαµηλές ποσότητες Fe2O3 και Al2O3. Αν και o λόγος τους CaO/SiO2 µπορεί να χρησιµοποιηθεί για την πρόβλεψη των ορυκτολογικών παραγενέσεών τους, λεπτοµερείς αναλύσεις µε περιθλασιµετρία ακτίνων-Χ, οπτική και ηλεκτρονική µικροσκοπία έδειξαν σηµαντικές παρεκκλίσεις από τις αναµενόµενες φάσεις. Οι µικροδοµές ποικίλουν αρκετά ως προς τον δεσµό MgO-MgO, τις ποσότητες και τις συστάσεις των φάσεων των πυριτικών δεσµών, αλλά και το µέγεθος των κρυστάλλων του περικλάστου. Οι ποιότητες Magflot και Τετηγµένης µαγνησίας Κίνας περιέχουν µικρότερα ποσοστά δευτερευουσών φάσεων από τις ποιότητες Ε21Α, Ε12Ε και ΝΕ3. Ο χηµισµός των ποιοτήτων Ε21Α, Ε12Ε και ΝΕ3 ευνοεί το σχηµατισµό δευτερευουσών ασβεστοπυριτικών φάσεων χαµηλού σηµείου τήξεως (όπως C3MS2, CMS) που µειώνουν την πυριµαχικότητα των υλικών. Η διαλυτότητα του CaO στο περίκλαστο ποικίλει µεταξύ των κρυστάλλων του ίδιου δείγµατος, ενώ ο σίδηρος συγκεντρώνεται στο περίκλαστο σχηµατίζοντας βουστίτη. Οι δεκαοκτώ νέες σπινελικές συνθέσεις που παρήχθησαν στα πλαίσια αυτής της διατριβής σε πιλοτική µονάδα στη ΒΙΟΜΑΓΝ στο Μαντούδι Ευβοίας, περιέχουν αλούµινα από 50% έως και 70% και ως προσθετικά, είτε πυριτικό ζιρκόνιο (0,5-2%) ή χρωµίτη (2-5%). Αύξηση του ποσοστού του Al2O3 στις σπινελικές συνθέσεις µε πυριτικό ζιρκόνιο αλλά και σε εκείνες µε χρωµίτη, οδηγεί σε αύξηση της φαινόµενης πυκνότητας καθώς και σε αύξηση του ποσοστού του σπινελίου. Το σταθεροποιητικό προσθετικό του πυριτικού ζιρκονίου επιδρά στο σχηµατισµό µιας πυρίµαχης φάσης υψηλού σηµείου τήξεως, CaOZrO2, η οποία ρυθµίζει την ποσότητα και το είδος των υπολοίπων δευτερευουσών φάσεων που σχηµατίζονται. Το Cr2O3 στις συνθέσεις σπινελίου µε προσθετικό χρωµίτη δεσµεύεται κυρίως στο πλέγµα του σπινελίου αυξάνοντας την πυκνότητά του, ενώ δρα και ως φύτρο σχηµατισµού του σπινελίου. Παράλληλα οι άµεσοι δεσµοί διάχυσης είναι ισχυρότεροι σε σχέση µε εκείνους των κρυστάλλων σπινελίου στις σπινελικές συνθέσεις χωρίς χρωµίτη και αυξάνουν την αντοχή του σπινελίου στη χηµική διάβρωση από τήγµατα µεταλλουργικών σκωριών Οι δευτερεύουσες ασβεστοπυριτικές και ασβεστοαλουµινούχες φάσεις που ανιχνεύθηκαν στις δεκαοκτώ σπινελικές συνθέσεις κυµαίνονται σε πολύ χαµηλά επίπεδα, ενώ δεν αποτελούν όλες, φάσεις ισορροπίας. Από τις νέες σπινελικές συνθέσεις παρασκευάστηκαν έξι νέες ποιότητες µαγνησιοσπινελικών πυριµάχων. Σε κάθε µία από τις συνθέσεις µε 10 και 20 %Al2O3 χρησιµοποιήθηκαν ως πρώτες ύλες: 1. Μagflot και σπινελική σύνθεση τύπου R551z (µε 50% αλούµινα-50% Μafglot και προσθετικό πυριτικό ζιρκόνιο), 2. Magflot και σπινελική σύνθεση τύπου R559z (µε 70% αλούµινα-30% Μagflot και προσθετικό πυριτικό ζιρκόνιο), 3. Magflot και σπινελική σύνθεση τύπου R573cr (µε 70% αλούµινα-30% Μagflot και προσθετικό χρωµίτη). Οι νέες συνθέσεις των µαγνησιοσπινελικών πυριµάχων παρασκευάστηκαν µε σκοπό τη βελτίωση της συµπεριφοράς τους στους θερµοκρασιακούς αιφνιδιασµούς, στη διάβρωση από τήγµατα αλλά και στην αντοχή τους στην εκτριβή µε στόχο την εφαρµογή τους στη βιοµηχανία (ως πορώδη εµβύσµατα για παραγωγή υπερκαθαρού χάλυβα, για αντικατάσταση των ανδαλουσιτικών πυριµάχων στους µεταλλουργικούς κάδους, για αντικατάσταση των µαγνησιοχρωµιτικών πυριµάχων στους κάµινους της τσιµεντοβιοµηχανίας κλπ.). Στις νέες συνθέσεις των µαγνησιοσπινελικών πυριµάχων πραγµατοποιήθηκαν χηµικές, ορυκτολογικές αναλύσεις καθώς και µετρήσεις φαινόµενης πυκνότητας, συντελεστή θερµικής διαστολής αλλά και δοκιµές σε θλίψη εν ψυχρώ. Από τα αποτελέσµατα που προέκυψαν οι ποιότητες S-MAL37z-20 και S-MAL37cr-20, που περιέχουν υψηλής πυκνότητας σπινελικές συνθέσεις (R559z και R573cr αντίστοιχα) και περιεκτικότητα σε Αl2O3 στη µάζα τους της τάξεως 20%, προτείνονται ως περισσότερο κατάλληλες σε σχέση µε τις υπόλοιπες, για αντοχή στους θερµοκρασιακούς αιφνιδιασµούς, και στη διάβρωση από σκωρίες, ενώ οι S-MAL55z-10, S-MAL55z-20 και S-MAL55cr-10 θεωρούνται περισσότερο κατάλληλες για αντοχή σε θλίψη. / The present thesis deals with the systematic study of the chemical, mineralogical composition as well as the natural and technological properties of several Greek magnesia materials, derived from magnesite, in order to reach conclusions not only fοr the improvement of the final products but also for the development and manufacture of new ones which, in turn, will allow the greek basic refractories to remain at the forefront of the international developments . Specifically, have been studied: 1) Raw materials. The dead- burned magnesia grains examined are divided into two groups according to the mode of beneficiation of the raw magnesite. A). Dead –burned magnesias of E21A, E12E, NE3 were produced from natural microcrystalline magnesite by firing at temperatures in the range of 1800-2000 oC in rotary kilns. Prior to dead burning magnestite was beneficiated by conventional methods (optical sorting, heavy media, magnetic separation). B) Dead –burned magnesias of Magflot Super A and Magflot A1 were produced from natural microcrystalline magnesite beneficiated by the process of froth flotation, which ensures homogeneity and low silica. The obtained filter cake is calcined to caustic magnesia, which is subsequently briquetted and finally dead burned in shaft kiln at temperatures up to 2000 –2200 oC. Chinese fused magnesia has been also studied in order to be compared with greek materials. 2) Magnesia bricks produced by VIOMAGN; MbE21A from magnesia E21A and MbMagflot Super A from Magflot Super A. In addition, a magnesia chromite brick derived from raw materials of Magflot Super A and chromite from China was studied. 3) New spinel-based compositions and new magnesia-spinel refractory materials which have been produced for the needs of this study. The chemical composition of the materials examined here lie essentially in the MgO-CaO-SiO2 system, since they contain only trace amounts of Fe2O3 and Al2O3. Although their CaO/SiO2 ratios can be used to approximate their mineralogical compositions, detailed XRD, and optical and analytical SEM studies revealed significant deviations from the expected phase assemblages. Their microstructures vary widely in terms of proportions of direct MgO-MgO bonding, amounts and phase constitution of the siliceous bonding and size of the periclase crystals. The qualities of Magflot and Fused Chinese Magnesia contain secondary phases at lower levels compared to the qualities E21A, E12E and NE3. The chemical compositions of the qualities E21A, E12E and NE3 favored the formation of secondary calcium-silicate phases of low melting point. (such as C3MS2, CMS), which reduce the refractoriness of the materials. The solid solubility of CaO in periclase varies between crystals of the same sample. Iron was always found in solution to periclase as wustite. The new spinel-based compositions were produced in a pilot plant at Madoudi of Evia and contain alumina ranging from 50% to 70% and additives of either ZrSiO4 (0,5-2%) or chromite (2-5%). Increase in the amount of Al2O3 in the spinel compositions with ZrSiO4 and chromite lead to an increase in the bulk density as well as in the amount of spinel formed. The stabilizing additive of silica zircon favored the formation of a refractory phase with increased melting point, which controls the formation, the amount and the type of the other secondary phases. The Cr2O3 of spinel compositions which enters mainly the lattice, increases the density and acts as a core for the formation of the spinel. Furthermore, the direct diffusion bondings are stronger than those of the spinel crystals in the spinel compositions without chromite and increase the resistance of spinel against the chemical corrosion from fused metallurgic slags. The secondary calcium-aluminate and calcium- silicate phases, which were traced in the eighteen spinel-based compositions occur in low amount, and not all of them are equilibrium phases. From the new spinel-based compositions, six new magnesia-spinel refractory materials were produced. The compositions with 10 and 20% Al2O3 were derived from : 1 Magflot and spinel composition R551Z which contains 50% alumina-50% Magflot and silica zircon as additive. 2 Magflot and spinel composition R559z that contains 70% alumina – 30% Magflot and silica zircon as additive, 3 Magflot and spinel composition R573cr that contains 70% alumina – 30% Magflot and chromite as additive. The compositions of the magnesia spinel refractories produced are expected to show endurance in thermal shocks as well as in the corrosion from slags and friction, in order to have a wide application in steel, cement industry etc. Chemical, mineralogical analyses as well as estimation of bulk density, thermal coefficient factor and cold crushing strength parameter, of the new magnesia-spinel refractory materials, revealed that: a) the S-MAL37z-20 and S-MAL37cr-20 qualities which contain high density spinel compositions (R559z and R573cr respectively), and Al2O3 of about 20 (% wt) exhibit high endurance in rapid thermal changes and in corrosion, b) the S-MAL55z-10, S-MAL55z-20 and S-MAL55cr-10 qualities show high endurance in crushing.

No description available.

Στην συγκεκριμένη διατριβή διερευνήθηκαν οι συνθήκες γένεσης του μικροκρυσταλλικού μαγνησίτη στις περιοχές Βάβδου και Γερακινής-Ορμύλιας της Χαλκιδικής. Η πετρογραφική μελέτη του μαγνησίτη και των ξενιστών του αποκάλυψαν δύο δομές δημιουργίας του μαγνησίτη: in situ εξαλλοίωση μέσα σε μανδυακά πετρώματα ξενιστές και ex situ αποθέσεις μέσα στους μανδυακούς σχηματισμούς. Επιπλέον, πιθανά υπάρχει στενή σχέση μεταξύ της κοιτασματογένεσης του μαγνησίτη και των περιβαλλόντων πυριτιωμένων πετρωμάτων (λιστβανίτες). Επίσης, οι γεωχημικές παρατηρήσεις συγχρόνως με τις ορυκτοχημικές αναλύσεις, δίνουν νέα στοιχεία όσον αφορά στην γένεση του κοιτάσματος. Παράλληλα, έγινε εργαστηριακή παραγωγή καυστικής μαγνησίας και παράχθησαν, με προσθήκη αυτής συγχρόνως με χρήση ερυθράς ιλύς και τέφρας πυθμένα, νέα κεραμικά υψηλού πορώδους. Τα αποτελέσματα υπήρξαν ιδιαίτερα ικανοποιητικά, καθώς παρατηρήθηκε ότι με προσθήκη μαγνησίας σε μικρό ποσοστό βελτιώνονται οι φυσικομηχανικές ιδιότητές τους. Κεραμικά υψηλού πορώδους είναι κατάλληλα για χρήση σε φίλτρα και σε απορροφητικά υλικά. Τέλος, προτείνεται νέος τρόπος αξιοποίησης στείρων υλικών μαγνησίτη από τις εξορυκτικές διεργασίες, καθώς αποδεικνύεται ότι ο μαγνησίτης έχει πολύ θετικά αποτελέσματα με προσθήκη του σε οξινισμένα ύδατα, δίνοντας νέες προοπτικές αξιοποίησης του σε περιβαλλοντικές εφαρμογές. Το πειραματικό σκέλος της δοκιμής σε οξινισμένα νερά, πραγματοποιήθηκε σε σύγκριση με πετρώματα που χρησιμοποιούνται για την αντιμετώπιση όξινων απορροών μεταλλείων. / In the present thesis, the microcrystalline magnesite from Central Chalkidiki (Vavdos and Gerakini areas) are investigated in order to clarify the conditions of its genesis. Petrographic study of the magnesite and its host rocks revealed two types of formation: a) in situ alteration in the mantle host rocks, due to metasomatic process, and b) ex situ deposit within mantle formations, related to hydrothermal fluids. Furthermore, petrographic observations suggest a close association between the genesis of the microcrystalline magnesite with the surrounding high silica-carbonate rocks, also termed as listwaenites. Moreover, scanning electron microscopy (S.E.M.) observations along with geochemical analysis provide new evidence for the formation of the magnesite. Caustic magnesia produced in the laboratory was mixed with red mud and bottom ash from industrial wastes, in order to make new, high porosity ceramics. It was observed that the addition of small amounts of caustic magnesia improved the physicomechanical properties of the briquettes. High porosity ceramics are suitable for their use in filters and absorbent materials for environmental applications. Finally, a new way for utilizing waste materials from magnesite mining processes in the disposal of acidified waters is proposed. Addition of magnesite improved the alkalinity of high acidic waters, offering new perspectives for environmental applications. The experimental results from magnesite were compared with similar results from other rocks used to treat acid mine drainage.

Zinc is one of the essential elements required for the normal growth plants. The total amount of zinc commonly occurring in soils is usually many times greater than that necessary to supply the needs of actively growing plants. The ability of the soil to "fix" zinc in form unavailable for plant use, however, has made the zinc deficiency disease an important plant nutrition problem in the major fruit and nut growing regions of the West. Fixation mechanisms which have been postulated as contributing to zinc deficiency include organic complexes, precipitation of insoluble inorganic salts, and strong zinc-clay interactions. It may be possible that in certain soils naturally occurring soil minerals, other than the clay minerals, may also exert an influence on the capacity of the soil to retain zinc. The accumulation of lime minerals is a distinguishing profile characteristic of soils in arid and semi-arid region and semi-arid regions. These minerals include: calcite (CaCO3), dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2), and magnesite (MgCO3). Despite the widespread occurrence of these minerals in the soil system, relatively few data exist which specifically isolate the interaction between cations in solution and the solid phase of the above-named lime minerals.

No description available.

La formation de minéraux carbonatés magnésiens par carbonatation de silicates de magnésium constitue une option pérenne et sûre de séquestration du dioxyde de carbone, dont les estimations les plus optimistes indiquent qu'elle pourrait participer significativement à l'effort global de réduction des émissions de CO2 d'origine anthropique. À ce jour cependant, ces réactions chimiques se heurtent à de fortes limitations cinétiques, dont l'origine réside dans la faible réactivité des phases minérales en présence. Alors que de nombreuses études se sont intéressées à la phase de dissolution des silicates magnésiens, souvent considérée comme l'étape limitante du processus, ce travail de thèse prend le parti d'étudier expérimentalement les mécanismes et les vitesses de formation des minéraux carbonatés magnésiens qui constituent le produit final des réactions de carbonatation. Dans une première partie, nous nous intéressons à l'influence sur la cinétique de précipitation de la magnésite (MgCO3) de ligands organiques connus pour accélérer la vitesse de dissolution des silicates magnésiens : oxalate, citrate et EDTA. Sur la base d'expériences menées en réacteur à circulation entre 100 et 150°C, nous montrons que ces ligands diminuent significativement la vitesse de précipitation de la magnésite en raison (1) de la complexation des cations Mg2+ en solution, estimée grâce à une base de données thermodynamiques établie à partir d'une revue critique de la littérature, et (2) de l'adsorption des ligands au niveau d'un nombre limité de sites à la surface du minéral, avec pour conséquence une diminution de la constante cinétique de précipitation. Cette inhibition de la cristallisation de la magnésite est maximale dans le cas du citrate. L'utilisation de la microscopie à force atomique en conditions hydrothermales nous a permis de sonder l'origine de l'inhibition observée. Elle nous indique en particulier que le citrate et l'oxalate agissent sur le processus de croissance cristalline à la surface de la magnésite, modifiant la forme des îlots de croissance ainsi que la fréquence de génération des marches cristallines par le processus de croissance en spirale. Nous montrons que ces deux ligands agissent au niveau de sites surfaciques différents, probablement fonction de leurs structures et de leurs propriétés chimiques. Nous proposons que l'inhibition plus forte exercée par le citrate sur le processus de croissance de la magnésite provienne d'une interaction préférentielle du ligand avec les marches cristallines aigües, qui limitent le processus de croissance en spirale de par leur faible vitesse d'avancement. La description de ces phénomènes à l'aide d'une loi cinétique empirique permet d'effectuer une modélisation numérique simple de la carbonatation de la forstérite (Mg2SiO4) en présence de ligands à 120°C, qui suggère que les ligands organiques étudiés ont une influence défavorable sur le processus global de carbonatation de ce minéral .La troisième et dernière partie de ce travail s'intéresse à la solubilité et à la cinétique de précipitation d'un carbonate de magnésium hydraté, l'hydromagnésite, entre 25 et 75°C. Les résultats obtenus indiquent que la vitesse de croissance de l'hydromagnésite excède largement celle de la magnésite à affinité chimique comparable, tandis que l'énergie d'activation du processus est beaucoup plus faible que celle de la magnésite. Ces données cinétiques originales confirment que la déshydratation des ions Mg2+ est l'étape limitante de la précipitation de la magnésite en solution aqueuse. Toutefois, du fait de sa solubilité plus forte, l'hydromagnésite n'est susceptible de se former plus rapidement que la magnésite qu'à pH alcalin et basse température. Elle ne peut à ce titre constituer un palliatif à la faible vitesse de précipitation de la magnésite lors de la carbonatation des silicates magnésiens / Forming magnesium carbonate minerals through carbonation of magnesium silicates has been proposed as a safe and durable way to store carbon dioxide, with a possibly high potential to offset anthropogenic CO2 emissions. To date however, chemical reactions involved in this process are facing strong kinetic limitations, which originate in the low reactivity of both Mg-silicates and Mg-carbonates. Numerous studies have focused on the dissolution of Mg-silicates, under the questionable hypothesis that this step limits the whole process. This thesis work focuses instead on the mechanisms and rates of formation of magnesium carbonates, which are the final products of carbonation reactions. The first part of the work is dedicated to studying the influence on magnesite precipitation kinetics of three organic ligands known to accelerate Mg-silicates dissolution rates : oxalate, citrate and EDTA. With help of mixed-flow reactor experiments performed between 100 and 150°C, we show that these ligands significantly reduce magnesite growth rates, through two combined mechanisms: (1) complexation of Mg2+ cations in aqueous solution, which was rigorously estimated from a thermodynamic database established through a critical review of the literature, and (2) adsorption of ligands to a limited number of surface sites, leading to a decrease of the precipitation rate constant. The observed growth inhibition is maximal with citrate. We then used hydrothermal atomic force microscopy to probe the origin of the documented growth inhibition. Our observations show that citrate and oxalate interact with the crystal growth process on magnesite surface, modifying the shape of growth hillocks as well as the step generation frequency through spiral growth. We also show that the ligands adsorb preferentially on different kink-sites, which is probably related to their different structures and chemical properties. We propose that the stronger magnesite growth inhibition caused by citrate is related to a preferential interaction of the ligand with acute steps on the magnesite surface, which limit the spiral growth process through their low advancement rate. The description of these processes with an empirical rate law allows performing simple numerical simulations of forsterite carbonatation at 120°C in the presence of the ligands. We thus demonstrate that the use of the investigated ligands would clearly be detrimental to the carbonation of forsterite. The third and last part of this work deals with hydromagnesite solubility and growth kinetics between 25 and 75°C. The obtained results show that hydromagnesite growth rates largely exceed magnesite rates at comparable chemical affinity, while the activation energy of the process is much smaller than for magnesite. This original kinetic dataset thus confirms the long-standing hypothesis that Mg2+ dehydration is the rate-limiting step for Mg-carbonate precipitation from aqueous solution. However, due to its higher solubility, hydromagnesite may grow more quickly than magnesite only at low temperature and alkaline pH. Thus, it may not provide a solution to the sluggish precipitation kinetics of magnesite during Mg-silicates carbonation

O estudo do interior da Terra apresenta diversos desafios, principalmente devido à impossibilidade de observações diretas de suas propriedades. Ondas sísmicas liberadas por terremotos são a melhor fonte de informação sobre a estrutura do planeta, mas sua correta interpretação depende do conhecimento das propriedades de seus elementos constituintes. Entretanto, estes estudos devem ser feitos nas condições extremas de temperatura e pressão do interior terrestre, condições difíceis de serem alcançadas em laboratório. Neste contexto, o estudo teórico de materiais tem sido muito importante na elaboração de modelos sobre a estrutura interna da Terra e na correta interpretação de dados sísmicos. Pesquisas recentes têm mostrado que a quantidade de carbono no manto inferior da Terra é maior do que se pensava anteriormente, e é importante compreender seus efeitos no interior profundo da Terra. Apesar da importância de entender os efeitos do carbono no interior da Terra, existem poucos estudos deste elemento nestas condições extremas de pressão e temperatura. Neste trabalho, utilizamos métodos e técnicas da física do estado sólido para estudar as propriedades de compostos de carbono nas condições de pressão e temperatura do manto inferior terrestre. Estudamos, primeiramente, as propriedades estruturais, eletrônicas e elásticas do MgSiO3 nas estruturas perovskita e pós-perovskita, considerado o principal mineral do manto inferior. Os resultados obtidos para as velocidades acústicas neste mineral mostraram variações maiores em relação às direções cristalinas, quando comparadas com mudanças devido à transição de fase estrutural. Isso indica que uma orientação preferencial dos eixos (anisotropia) pode ajudar a explicar algumas regiões com aumento descontínuo nas velocidades sísmicas. Posteriormente, foram obtidas as propriedades do MgCO3 e do CaCO3 em suas estruturas mais estáveis, em função da pressão. Nossos resultados foram comparados com os do MgSiO3 , mostrando que carbonatos de cálcio e de magnésio são estáveis nas condições do manto terrestre e que sua formação é energeticamente favorável. Resultados dos cálculos dos coeficientes elásticos e das velocidades acústicas nestes minerais mostram que as velocidades são menores que aquelas no MgSiO 3 . Dessa forma, em regiões ricas em carbono deve ocorrer a formação destes carbonatos e, por conseguinte, as velocidades sísmicas seriam menores nessas regiões. Isso pode explicar a existência das zonas de baixa velocidade na fronteira do manto inferior com o núcleo. Foram estudadas, também, as consequências da introdução de efeitos térmicos. Entretanto, obteve-se que os resultados não apresentam alterações significativas, de modo que mesmo nas altas temperaturas do interior da Terra nossas conclusões permanecem válidas, onde propomos que as regiões de baixa velocidade no manto inferior possam ser provocadas pela presença de carbono na forma de carbonatos e que a formação destes seria um modelo adicional para explicar onde e como o carbono pode ser armazenado no manto profundo. / Investigations on the Earths interior face several challenges, especially due to the infeasibility of direct observations of its properties. Earthquake seismic waves are the best information source about our planets structure, but its correct interpretation depends on the knowledge of its forming elements. However, these studies must consider the extreme pressures and temperatures of the Earths interior, hard to achieve experimentally. In this way, theoretical methods have emerged as an essential tool in elaborating models for the Earth internal structure and in the correct interpretation of seismic data. Recent studies have shown that the Earth must have much more carbon than previous thought, and it is important to understand its effects on the Earths deep interior. Despite its importance, there are few studies on carbon in these extreme conditions of pressure and temperature and on its effects in the Earths interior. In this investigation, we use theoretical solid state physics methods to investigate the properties of carbon compounds in the pressure and temperature conditions of Earths deep interior. First of all, we studied the electronic and elastic properties of MgSiO3 in the perovskite and post perovskite structures. This silicate is considered the main mineral in the Earths lower mantle. Our results show that seismic velocities have a larger variation with respect to the propagation direction than that with the phase transition. This indicates that a lattice preferred orientation can explain some seismic discontinuities. Thereafter, the properties of the MgCO3 and CaCO3 minerals were obtained in their more stable structures with respect to pressure. The results were compared with those of the MgSiO3, showing that calcium and magnesium carbonates are stable in the Earths mantle and that their formation is energetically favorable. The elastic coefficients and the acoustic velocities in these carbonates show seismic velocities considerably lower than those in the MgSiO3 . In this way, in regions with high carbon concentration the formation of carbonates could favorably occur and therefore the seismic velocities would be lower in those regions. This may explain the existence of low velocity zones near the bottom of Earths lower mantle. We also studied the consequences of the introduction of thermal effects. However, our results do not show any significant variation with temperature. Hence, even in the high temperatures of Earths interior, our conclusions are still valid where we propose that low velocity regions can be caused by the presence of carbon in the form of carbonates. Its formation could provide an additional model to explain where and how carbon can be stored in the deep mantle.

O estudo do interior da Terra apresenta diversos desafios, principalmente devido à impossibilidade de observações diretas de suas propriedades. Ondas sísmicas liberadas por terremotos são a melhor fonte de informação sobre a estrutura do planeta, mas sua correta interpretação depende do conhecimento das propriedades de seus elementos constituintes. Entretanto, estes estudos devem ser feitos nas condições extremas de temperatura e pressão do interior terrestre, condições difíceis de serem alcançadas em laboratório. Neste contexto, o estudo teórico de materiais tem sido muito importante na elaboração de modelos sobre a estrutura interna da Terra e na correta interpretação de dados sísmicos. Pesquisas recentes têm mostrado que a quantidade de carbono no manto inferior da Terra é maior do que se pensava anteriormente, e é importante compreender seus efeitos no interior profundo da Terra. Apesar da importância de entender os efeitos do carbono no interior da Terra, existem poucos estudos deste elemento nestas condições extremas de pressão e temperatura. Neste trabalho, utilizamos métodos e técnicas da física do estado sólido para estudar as propriedades de compostos de carbono nas condições de pressão e temperatura do manto inferior terrestre. Estudamos, primeiramente, as propriedades estruturais, eletrônicas e elásticas do MgSiO3 nas estruturas perovskita e pós-perovskita, considerado o principal mineral do manto inferior. Os resultados obtidos para as velocidades acústicas neste mineral mostraram variações maiores em relação às direções cristalinas, quando comparadas com mudanças devido à transição de fase estrutural. Isso indica que uma orientação preferencial dos eixos (anisotropia) pode ajudar a explicar algumas regiões com aumento descontínuo nas velocidades sísmicas. Posteriormente, foram obtidas as propriedades do MgCO3 e do CaCO3 em suas estruturas mais estáveis, em função da pressão. Nossos resultados foram comparados com os do MgSiO3 , mostrando que carbonatos de cálcio e de magnésio são estáveis nas condições do manto terrestre e que sua formação é energeticamente favorável. Resultados dos cálculos dos coeficientes elásticos e das velocidades acústicas nestes minerais mostram que as velocidades são menores que aquelas no MgSiO 3 . Dessa forma, em regiões ricas em carbono deve ocorrer a formação destes carbonatos e, por conseguinte, as velocidades sísmicas seriam menores nessas regiões. Isso pode explicar a existência das zonas de baixa velocidade na fronteira do manto inferior com o núcleo. Foram estudadas, também, as consequências da introdução de efeitos térmicos. Entretanto, obteve-se que os resultados não apresentam alterações significativas, de modo que mesmo nas altas temperaturas do interior da Terra nossas conclusões permanecem válidas, onde propomos que as regiões de baixa velocidade no manto inferior possam ser provocadas pela presença de carbono na forma de carbonatos e que a formação destes seria um modelo adicional para explicar onde e como o carbono pode ser armazenado no manto profundo. / Investigations on the Earths interior face several challenges, especially due to the infeasibility of direct observations of its properties. Earthquake seismic waves are the best information source about our planets structure, but its correct interpretation depends on the knowledge of its forming elements. However, these studies must consider the extreme pressures and temperatures of the Earths interior, hard to achieve experimentally. In this way, theoretical methods have emerged as an essential tool in elaborating models for the Earth internal structure and in the correct interpretation of seismic data. Recent studies have shown that the Earth must have much more carbon than previous thought, and it is important to understand its effects on the Earths deep interior. Despite its importance, there are few studies on carbon in these extreme conditions of pressure and temperature and on its effects in the Earths interior. In this investigation, we use theoretical solid state physics methods to investigate the properties of carbon compounds in the pressure and temperature conditions of Earths deep interior. First of all, we studied the electronic and elastic properties of MgSiO3 in the perovskite and post perovskite structures. This silicate is considered the main mineral in the Earths lower mantle. Our results show that seismic velocities have a larger variation with respect to the propagation direction than that with the phase transition. This indicates that a lattice preferred orientation can explain some seismic discontinuities. Thereafter, the properties of the MgCO3 and CaCO3 minerals were obtained in their more stable structures with respect to pressure. The results were compared with those of the MgSiO3, showing that calcium and magnesium carbonates are stable in the Earths mantle and that their formation is energetically favorable. The elastic coefficients and the acoustic velocities in these carbonates show seismic velocities considerably lower than those in the MgSiO3 . In this way, in regions with high carbon concentration the formation of carbonates could favorably occur and therefore the seismic velocities would be lower in those regions. This may explain the existence of low velocity zones near the bottom of Earths lower mantle. We also studied the consequences of the introduction of thermal effects. However, our results do not show any significant variation with temperature. Hence, even in the high temperatures of Earths interior, our conclusions are still valid where we propose that low velocity regions can be caused by the presence of carbon in the form of carbonates. Its formation could provide an additional model to explain where and how carbon can be stored in the deep mantle.

MENVSC / Department of Ecology and Resource Management / In this study, the efficacy of bentonite clay, pre-treated magnesite and their nanocomposite on the removal of Congo red dye from aqueous solution was explored. Batch experimental approach was a technique used to fulfil the goals of this study. A number of operational parameters were optimised, and they include effects of shaking time, adsorbent dosage, initial CR dye concentration, initial solution pH and temperature. Findings of the study revealed that the optimum conditions that are suitable for the removal of CR dye are 20 minutes, 0.5 g of dosage, 120 mg/L, 250 rpm, and pH = 7. This has achieved > 99% removal efficacy of CR dye for the nanocomposite and reduced it to below the South African National Standard (SANS) 241 water quality specifications. Furthermore, kinetic studies revealed that bentonite clay, pre-treated magnesite, and their nanocomposite fitted very well to pseudo-second-order kinetics than pseudo-first-order kinetics. The regression analysis was observed to be 1, 0.9, and 0.9 for bentonite clay, pre-treated magnesite, and their nanocomposite respectively. Adsorption isotherms indicated that CR removal by bentonite clay, pre-treated magnesite, and their nanocomposite fitted well to Langmuir adsorption isotherm than the Freundlich adsorption isotherm hence indicating mono-layer adsorption. Thermodynamic values for CR removal were observed to be: ΔH0 (kJ mol-1) = 43.86, 30.67, and 24.88 for bentonite clay, pre-treated magnesite, and their nanocomposite respectively. This indicates that the reaction is endothermic. The positive ΔS0 (kJ mol-1 K-1) values for bentonite clay and 25 °C for pre-treated magnesite confirms that there is an increase in the degree of randomness at solid/solution interface during the removal of CR ions from aqueous solution. The negative values of ΔG0 (kJ mol-1) for 40 – 70 °C on bentonite and the entire range for the nanocomposite suggest the spontaneity and feasibility of CR adsorption whereas the positive ΔG0 (kJ mol-1) for bentonite clay suggest a non-spontaneous nature of adsorption. As such, pre-treated magnesite/bentonite clay nanocomposite demonstrated superior adsorption capacity in relation to individual materials and other materials reported in literature. / NRF

PhDENV / Department of Ecology and Resource Management / Some industries such as textiles, ceramics, paper and printing are known to use significant amounts of dye to colour their products and during the colouring process, certain quantities of dyes are absorbed by the products, and some of them end up in wastewater. Depending on their application, some synthetic dyes are designed to be chemically or biologically resistant and their presence in the environment can cause severe environmental problems because of their colour impartation to water bodies. Therefore, proper treatment is required to remove these pollutants from wastewater before discharge into the environment. In this thesis, the potential of dye removal from wastewater by calcined magnesite, halloysite nanoclay and calcined magnesite - halloysite nanoclay composite was evaluated. To this end, the study was subdivided to four segments. The first segment of the study focused on evaluating the efficiency of using calcined magnesite to remove Methylene Blue (MB), Direct Red 81 (DR81), Methyl Orange (MO) and Crystal Violet (CV) dyes from aqueous systems using a batch study. To achieve that, several operational factors like residence time, adsorbent dosage, dye concentration and temperature were appraised. The adsorbent was subjected to different kinds of physicochemical characterization to determine the various characteristics that would assist in the dye uptake process. Characterization results showed that the adsorbent material was highly crystalline with magnesite, periclase, dolomite, and quartz as some of the crystalline phases. The batch study proved that calcined magnesite is effective in the treatment of dye contaminated water and moreover it performed well in terms of colour removal, though exceptional results were recorded for CV removal with complete decolourisation occurring in first few minutes of contact. In terms of experimental adsorption capacity, the performance of calcined magnesite was in the order CV (14.99 mg/g) > DR81 (12.56 mg/g) > MO (0.64 mg/g) > MB (0.39 mg/g). Mechanisms of adsorption where explained by fitting the experimental data into adsorption isotherms, kinetics, and thermodynamic parameters. Neither, the Langmuir, nor the Freundlich nor the Dubinin Radushkevich, nor the Temkin model could perfectly describe the adsorption of the four dyes onto calcined magnesite, however adsorption kinetics obeyed the pseudo second order model, implying that, the dye removal process was primarily a chemical process. In accordance with the results of this study, it can be concluded that calcined magnesite can be used effectively for the removal of dyes in aqueous solution and thus can be applied to treat wastewater containing dyes. The second segment of the study focused on the removal of MB, DR81, MO and CV dyes by halloysite nanoclay. Physicochemical characterisation revealed that the nanoclay has a surface area of 42 m²/g and its ABSTRACT iv morphology is predominated by tubular structures, which exhibit some hollow rod like structures. Various important parameters namely contact time, initial concentration of dyes, dosage, solution temperature and solution pH were optimized to achieve maximum adsorption capacity and it was observed that the effect of initial pH and temperature of the aqueous solution was neglibible on removal of the four dyes. The experimental adsorption capacities towards 40 mg/L of MB, DR81, MO and CV dyes were 17.51, 14.11, 0.38, and 4.75 mg/g respectively. The results indicate that natural halloysite nanoclay is an efficient material for the removal of the selected dyes. Due to its low cost and non-toxicity, halloysite nanoclay can be considered a good replacement option of other high cost materials used to treat coloured wastewater especially in developing countries like South Africa. Having observed the performance of calcined magnesite and halloysite nanoclay individually in the removal of selected dyes, a third study was designed with the aim of preparing a nanocomposite adsorbent from the aforementioned adsorbent materials and then evaluating the synergistic influence of the mechanochemical modification by a ball miller on the removal of MB, DR81, MO and CV dyes. Physicochemical characterization was carried out to get an insight of pre- and -post adsorption characteristics of the nanocomposite material and results showed major changes which could be an indication of dye uptake by the nanocomposite material. According to the results, the nanocomposite material outcompeted its component individual constituent materials i.e (calcined magnesite and halloysite nanoclay material) in the removal of DR81, which in turn was the highest removal efficiency observed for the whole batch adsorption study recording a maximum adsorption capacity and percentage removal of 19.89 mg/g and 99.40% respectively. Experimental results fitted the Langmuir and pseudo-second order models perfectly hence demonstrating that adsorption took place on a homogenous adsorbent layer via chemisorption. In overall, the results suggested that the nanocomposite is a suitable adsorbent for decolourising industrial wastewater. Based on the overall performance of the adsorbents in removing the four dyes, it was observed that the nanocomposite material had a high affinity for DR81 dye hence it was chosen as the model dye for further application in column studies. The effect of flow rate, bed height and initial dye concentration on the removal of DR81 was investigated. Maximum bed capacity and equilibrium dye uptake were determined and break through curves were plotted. Percentage dye removal increased with decrease in flow rate and increase in bed height. The maximum capacity of column was found to be about 51.73 mg DR81 per gram of the nanocomposite adsorbent for a flow rate of 3 mL/min, initial concentration of 10 mg/L and 4 cm bed height. Data from column studies was fitted to the Thomas model and Adams-Bohart models. The comparison of the R2 values obtained from both models showed a better fit for the nanocomposite material than the individual halloysite nanoclay and calcined magnesite materials. The study revealed the applicability of calcined magnesite- halloysite nanoclay composite in fixed bed column for the removal of DR81 dye from aqueous solution. v The reuse of an adsorbent is essential in order to make the adsorption process economic and environmentally friendly. To recover the adsorbate and renew the adsorbent for further use, a chemical method of regeneration was applied by using 0.1 M NaOH as the desorbent. Regeneration with 0.1 M NaOH proved very efficient for some dyes and less efficient for others depending on the adsorbent material used at the time. The general observation was that the adsorption capacity of the adsorbent materials decreased with successive adsorption – desorption cycles. Furthermore, regeneration with NaOH, favoured the acidic dyes (DR81 and MO) more than the basic dyes (MB and CV) possibly due to electrostatic interactions between oppositely charged molecules allowing for reversible reactions to take place. The three tested adsorbents namely calcined magnesite, halloysite nanoclay and their nanocomposite thereof were applied for the treatment of real wastewater effluent from a printing and ink industry. The adsorbents performed very well in terms of colour removal as recommended by the South African standards of wastewater discharge, However, in terms of pH, calcined magnesite and the nanocomposite produced a highly alkaline solution hence wastewater neutralisation by an acid is recommended before discharge. These findings show that the two natural clay-based materials (calcined magnesite and halloysite nanoclay) and their nanocomposite thereof have a great potential for application in dye wastewater remediation since the materials used in the process are inexpensive, abundant and require minimal modifications. / NRF