Thesis (Ph.D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Earth and Planetary Science, 1982. / Microfiche copy available in Archives and Science / Vita. / Bibliography: leaves 110-111. / by Gerald Alan LaTorraca. / Ph.D.

Thesis. 1978. Ph.D.--Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dept. of Earth and Planetary Science. / Microfiche copy available in Archives and Science. / Vita. / Bibliography: leaves 200-203. / Ph.D.

An integrated use of radio magnetotelluric (RMT) and controlled source tensor magnetotelluric (CSTMT) measurements, the so-called CSRMT method, has been employed in environmental and resource exploration studies. A number of case histories, including a groundwater investigation in glacial deposits, a study of fracture zones for geotechnical purposes and a mining exploration study of a copper deposit, are presented in this thesis in order to illustrate the usefulness and capability of the CSRMT method. The resolutions of the estimated models using various types of data are studied. Magnetotelluric transfer functions are used to analyze the dimensionality, the near surface resistivity distortions and the near field effects in the case of CSTMT data analysis. The near field effects in CSTMT data have also been identified by performing 2½D forward modelling. Data analysis, dimensionality tests and forward modelling show that at the lowest frequencies used the CSTMT transfer functions are generally distorted by source effects, except when the source-receiver distances are sufficient large compared with the penetration depth. Regarding CSTMT transfer functions, apparent resistivities are generally less distorted than phases. TM mode transfer functions are more affected by the sources than TE mode, while tipper vectors generally contain source signatures at all frequencies. Based on the analysis of dimensionality and source effects 2D inverse modelling of CSTMT and RMT data, as well as their combination, have been performed under the plane wave assumption. The RMT method proved to be a powerful tool for imaging the upper 50 m near-surface, but their penetration depth reduces as a conductive layer structures cover the targets at depth. The penetration depth can be increased by including the CSTMT data in the modelling if the measurements are in the far field range. The resolution of the deeper parts of the models may be improved by performing a joint inversion of TE and TM modes, if the strike direction is well-defined. Alternatively, inversion of determinant data can be performed, since the determinant data are less affected by 3D structures and source effects. However the resolution of the determinant models is somewhat degraded compared to the models inverted from combined TE and TM modes.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of the Witwatersrand School of Geosciences and Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies School of Cosmic Physics Geophysics Section February 2016 / Archean cratons, and the Proterozoic orogenic belts on their flanks, form an integral part of the Southern Africa tectonic landscape. Of these, virtually nothing is known of the position and thickness of the southern boundary of the composite Congo craton and the Neoproterozoic Pan African orogenic belt due to thick sedimentary cover. In this work I present the first lithospheric-scale geophysical study of that cryptic boundary and define its geometry at depth. The results are derived from two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) inversion of magnetotelluric data acquired along four semi-parallel profiles crossing the Kalahari craton across the Damara-Ghanzi-Chobe belts (DGC) and extending into the Congo craton. Two dimensional and three-dimensional electrical resistivity models show significant lateral variation in the crust and upper mantle across strike from the younger DGC orogen to the older adjacent cratons. The Damara belt lithosphere is found to be more conductive and significantly thinner than that of the adjacent Congo craton. The Congo craton is characterized by very thick (to depths of 250 km) and resistive (i.e. cold) lithosphere. Resistive upper crustal features are interpreted as caused by igneous intrusions emplaced during Pan-African magmatism. Graphite-bearing calcite marbles and sulfides are widespread in the Damara belt and account for the high crustal conductivity in the Central Zone. The resistivity models provide new constraints on the southern extent of the greater Congo craton, and suggest that the current boundary drawn on geological maps needs revision and that the craton should be extended further south. The storage possibilities for the Karoo Basins were found to be poor because of the very low porosity and permeability of the sandstones, the presence of extensive dolerite sills and dykes. The obvious limitation of the above study is the large spacings between the MT stations (> 10km). This is particularly more limiting in resolving the horizontal layers in the Karoo basin. However the 1D models provide layered Earth models that are consistent with the known geology. The resistivity values from the 1D models allowed porosity of the Ecca and Beaufort group lithologies to be calculated. It is inferred that the porosities values are in the range 5-15 % in the region below the profile. This value is considered too low for CO2 storage as the average porosity of rock used for CO2 is generally more than 10 to 12 percent of the total rock unit volume.

Tectonic and geological processes on Earth often result in structural anisotropy of the subsurface, which can be imaged by various geophysical methods. In order to achieve appropriate and realistic Earth models for interpretation, inversion algorithms have to allow for an anisotropic subsurface. Within the framework of this thesis, I analyzed a magnetotelluric (MT) data set taken from the Cape Fold Belt in South Africa. This data set exhibited strong indications for crustal anisotropy, e.g. MT phases out of the expected quadrant, which are beyond of fitting and interpreting with standard isotropic inversion algorithms. To overcome this obstacle, I have developed a two-dimensional inversion method for reconstructing anisotropic electrical conductivity distributions. The MT inverse problem represents in general a non-linear and ill-posed minimization problem with many degrees of freedom: In isotropic case, we have to assign an electrical conductivity value to each cell of a large grid to assimilate the Earth's subsurface, e.g. a grid with 100 x 50 cells results in 5000 unknown model parameters in an isotropic case; in contrast, we have the sixfold in an anisotropic scenario where the single value of electrical conductivity becomes a symmetric, real-valued tensor while the number of the data remains unchanged. In order to successfully invert for anisotropic conductivities and to overcome the non-uniqueness of the solution of the inverse problem it is necessary to use appropriate constraints on the class of allowed models. This becomes even more important as MT data is not equally sensitive to all anisotropic parameters. In this thesis, I have developed an algorithm through which the solution of the anisotropic inversion problem is calculated by minimization of a global penalty functional consisting of three entries: the data misfit, the model roughness constraint and the anisotropy constraint. For comparison, in an isotropic approach only the first two entries are minimized. The newly defined anisotropy term is measured by the sum of the square difference of the principal conductivity values of the model. The basic idea of this constraint is straightforward. If an isotropic model is already adequate to explain the data, there is no need to introduce electrical anisotropy at all. In order to ensure successful inversion, appropriate trade-off parameters, also known as regularization parameters, have to be chosen for the different model constraints. Synthetic tests show that using fixed trade-off parameters usually causes the inversion to end up by either a smooth model with large RMS error or a rough model with small RMS error. Using of a relaxation approach on the regularization parameters after each successful inversion iteration will result in smoother inversion model and a better convergence. This approach seems to be a sophisticated way for the selection of trade-off parameters. In general, the proposed inversion method is adequate for resolving the principal conductivities defined in horizontal plane. Once none of the principal directions of the anisotropic structure is coincided with the predefined strike direction, only the corresponding effective conductivities, which is the projection of the principal conductivities onto the model coordinate axes direction, can be resolved and the information about the rotation angles is lost. In the end the MT data from the Cape Fold Belt in South Africa has been analyzed. The MT data exhibits an area (> 10 km) where MT phases over 90 degrees occur. This part of data cannot be modeled by standard isotropic modeling procedures and hence can not be properly interpreted. The proposed inversion method, however, could not reproduce the anomalous large phases as desired because of losing the information about rotation angles. MT phases outside the first quadrant are usually obtained by different anisotropic anomalies with oblique anisotropy strike. In order to achieve this challenge, the algorithm needs further developments. However, forward modeling studies with the MT data have shown that surface highly conductive heterogeneity in combination with a mid-crustal electrically anisotropic zone are required to fit the data. According to known geological and tectonic information the mid-crustal zone is interpreted as a deep aquifer related to the fractured Table Mountain Group rocks in the Cape Fold Belt. / Tektonische und geologische Prozesse verursachen häufig eine strukturelle Anisotropie des Untergrundes, welche von verschiedenen geophysikalischen Methoden beobachtet werden kann. Zur Erstellung und Interpretation geeigneter, realistischer Modelle der Erde sind Inversionsalgorithmen notwendig, die einen anisotropen Untergrund einbeziehen können. Für die vorliegende Arbeit habe ich einen magnetotellurischen (MT) Datensatz vom Cape Fold Gürtel in Südafrika untersucht. Diese Daten weisen auf eine ausgeprägte Anisotropie der Kruste hin, da z.B. die MT Phasen außerhalb des erwarteten Quadranten liegen und nicht durch standardisierte isotrope Inversionsalgorithmen angepasst und ausgewertet werden können. Um dieses Problem zu beheben, habe ich eine zweidimensionale Inversionsmethode entwickelt, welche eine anisotrope elektrische Leitfähigkeitsverteilungen in den Modellen zulässt. Die MT Inversion ist im allgemeinen ein nichtlineares, schlecht gestelltes Minimierungsproblem mit einer hohen Anzahl an Freiheitsgraden. Im isotropen Fall wird jeder Gitterzelle eines Modells ein elektrischer Leitfähigkeitswert zugewiesen um den Erduntergrund nachzubilden. Ein Modell mit beispielsweise 100 x 50 Zellen besitzt 5000 unbekannte Modellparameter. Im Gegensatz dazu haben wir im anisotropen Fall die sechsfache Anzahl, da hier aus dem einfachen Zahlenwert der elektrischen Leitfähigkeit ein symmetrischer, reellwertiger Tensor wird, wobei die Anzahl der Daten gleich bleibt. Für die erfolgreiche Inversion von anisotropen Leitfähigkeiten und um die Nicht-Eindeutigkeit der Lösung des inversen Problems zu überwinden, ist eine geeignete Einschränkung der möglichen Modelle absolut notwendig. Dies wird umso wichtiger, da die Sensitivität von MT Daten nicht für alle Anisotropieparameter gleich ist. In der vorliegenden Arbeit habe ich einen Algorithmus entwickelt, welcher die Lösung des anisotropen Inversionsproblems unter Minimierung einer globalen Straffunktion berechnet. Diese besteht aus drei Teilen: der Datenanpassung, den Zusatzbedingungen an die Glätte des Modells und die Anisotropie. Im Gegensatz dazu werden beim isotropen Fall nur die ersten zwei Parameter minimiert. Der neu definierte Anisotropieterm wird mit Hilfe der Summe der quadratischen Abweichung der Hauptleitfähigkeitswerte des Modells gemessen. Die grundlegende Idee dieser Zusatzbedingung ist einfach. Falls ein isotropes Modell die Daten ausreichend gut anpassen kann, wird keine elektrische Anisotropie zusätzlich in das Modell eingefügt. Um eine erfolgreiche Inversion zu garantieren müssen geeignete Regularisierungsparameter für die verschiedenen Nebenbedingungen an das Modell gewählt werden. Tests mit synthetischen Modellen zeigen, dass bei festgesetzten Regularisierungsparametern die Inversion meistens entweder in einem glatten Modell mit hohem RMS Fehler oder einem groben Modell mit kleinem RMS Fehler endet. Die Anwendung einer Relaxationsbedingung auf die Regularisierung nach jedem Iterationsschritt resultiert in glatteren Inversionsmodellen und einer höheren Konvergenz und scheint ein ausgereifter Weg zur Wahl der Parameter zu sein. Die vorgestellte Inversionsmethode ist im allgemeinen in der Lage die Hauptleitfähigkeiten in der horizontalen Ebene zu finden. Wenn keine der Hauptrichtungen der Anisotropiestruktur mit der vorgegebenen Streichrichtung übereinstimmt, können nur die dazugehörigen effektiven Leitfähigkeiten, welche die Projektion der Hauptleitfähigkeiten auf die Koordinatenachsen des Modells darstellen, aufgelöst werden. Allerdings gehen die Informationen über die Rotationswinkel verloren. Am Ende meiner Arbeit werden die MT Daten des Cape Fold Gürtels in Südafrika analysiert. Die MT Daten zeigen in einem Abschnitt des Messprofils (> 10 km) Phasen über 90 Grad. Dieser Teil der Daten kann nicht mit herkömmlichen isotropen Modellierungsverfahren angepasst und daher mit diesen auch nicht vollständig ausgewertet werden. Die vorgestellte Inversionsmethode konnte die außergewöhnlich hohen Phasenwerte nicht wie gewünscht im Inversionsergebnis erreichen, was mit dem erwähnten Informationsverlust der Rotationswinkel begründet werden kann. MT Phasen außerhalb des ersten Quadranten können für gewöhnlich bei Anomalien mit geneigter Streichrichtung der Anisotropie gemessen werden. Um diese auch in den Inversionsergebnissen zu erreichen ist eine Weiterentwicklung des Algorithmus notwendig. Vorwärtsmodellierungen des MT Datensatzes haben allerdings gezeigt, dass eine hohe Leitfähigkeitsheterogenität an der Oberfläche in Kombination mit einer Zone elektrischer Anisotropie in der mittleren Kruste notwendig sind um die Daten anzupassen. Aufgrund geologischer und tektonischer Informationen kann diese Zone in der mittleren Kruste als tiefer Aquifer interpretiert werden, der im Zusammenhang mit den zerrütteten Gesteinen der Table Mountain Group des Cape Fold Gürtels steht.

The Fennoscandian Shield as a part of a large Precambrian basement area is located in northern Europe and hosts economically important mineral deposits including base metals and precious metals. Regional geophysical data such as potential field and magnetotelluric data in combination with other geoscientific data contain information of importance for an understanding of the crustal and upper mantle structure. Knowledge about regional-scale structures is important for an optimized search for mineralisation. In order to investigate in more detail the spatial distribution of regional electrically conductive structures and near-surface mineral deposits, complementary magnetotelluric measurements have been done within the Precambrian Shield in the north-eastern part of the Norrbotten ore province. The potential field data provided by the Geological Survey of Sweden have been included in the current study. Processing of magnetotelluric data was performed using a robust multi-remote reference technique. The dimensionality analysis of the phase tensors indicates complex 3D structures in the area. A 3D crustal model of the electrical conductivity structure was derived based on 3D inversion of the data using the ModEM code. The final inversion 3D resistivity model revealed the presence of strong crustal conductors with the conductance of more than 3000 S at depth of tens of kilometres within a generally resistive crust. A significant part of the middle crust conductors is elongated in directions that coincide with major ductile deformation zones that have been mapped from airborne magnetic data and geological fieldwork. Some of these conductors have near-surface expression where they spatially correlate with the locations of known mineralisation. Processing and 3D inversion of the regional magnetic and gravity field data were performed, and the structural information derived from these data by using an open-source object-oriented package code written in Python called SimPEG. In this study, a new approach is proposed to extract and analyse the correlation between the modelled physical properties and for domain classification. For this, a neural net Self-Organizing Map procedure (SOM) was used for data reduction and simplification. The input data to the SOM analysis contain resistivity, magnetic susceptibility, and density model values for some selected depth levels. The domain classification is discussed with respect to geological boundaries and composition. The classification is furthermore applied for prediction of favourable areas for mineralisation. Based on visual inspection of processed regional gravity and magnetic field data and a SOM analysis performed on higher-order derivatives of the magnetic data, an interpretation of a sinistral fault with 52 km offset is proposed. The fault is oriented N10E and can be traced 250 km from Karesuando at the Swedish-Finish border southwards to the Archaean-Proterozoic boundary marked by the Luleå-Jokkmokk Zone.

The thesis presents the application of the magnetotelluric (MT) sounding method to image Earth’s crust in Oman and South Australia. The aim of these MT surveys is to provide constraints on the geological interpretation of emplacement scenarios and the tectonic evolution of the geological domain. The thesis concentrates on the methodological aspects of the MT technique, e.g. the data analysis and modelling of electromagnetic fields. The phase tensor approach by Caldwell et al. (2004) is applied to the data and provides insights into the dimensionality of the MT data in even complex and electrically distorted terranes. Modelling and inversion of the MT data is performed with various 2-D and 3-D codes to show how the interpretation of the data can benefit from multiple modelling approaches. Data collected in a 2-D survey across the Oman ophiolite mountains show complex behaviour and 2-D inversion and 3-D forward modelling resolve ambiguities in the emplacement scenario of the Oman ophiolite. It is believed that initial underthrusting of the Jurassic-Cretaceous oceanic lithosphere was followed by exhumation. Further oceanic thrusting subsequently led to rising of lower-plate eclogites and eventually gravitational collapse of the ophiolite onto the margin (Gray et al., 2000). The 3-D inversion code by (Siripunvaraporn et al., 2005a) was expanded to incorporate static shift corrections and inversion model misfits have therefore improved significantly compared to inversion models without static shift correction. 2-D and 3-D surveys across the South Australian Gawler Craton reveal deep crustal conductors which are connected to near surface mineralisation systems of the IOCG Olympic Dam deposit in the north-eastern part of the craton and the Au-dominated central Gawler Craton provinces. / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2008

Le développement de l’énergie géothermique a conduit à l’exploitation de ressources établies dans des contextes géologiques et géodynamiques très variés. L’exploration géophysique de ces réservoirs complexes nécessite l’utilisation de plusieurs méthodes d’imagerie complémentaire. Ce travail de thèse porte sur l’exploration d’une ressource géothermique située en contexte de socle fracturé dans le Massif Central français par magnétotellurique, tomographie de bruit ambiant et gravimétrie.La magnétotellurique est une méthode d’imagerie 3D résolvante qui est sensible à la présence d’eau et aux argiles d’altération hydrothermale mais limitée par sa couverture spatiale. La tomographie de bruit sismique présente une bonne résolution verticale mais ne résout pas les variations horizontales de vitesse. Cette méthode est sensible aux variations des propriétés mécaniques des roches et donc aux milieux fracturés. Enfin la gravimétrie apporte une contrainte sur les variations lithologiques et possède une bonne résolution latérale mais une faible résolution verticale.Nous présentons une méthode d’inversion conjointe des données sismiques et gravimétriques sous contrainte d’un modèle de résistivité obtenu par inversion magnétotellurique indépendante. L’inversion conjointe nécessite de définir des couplages entre modèles. Par absence de connaissance a priori de relations pétrophysiques, nous avons couplé les modèles de densité, de résistivité et de vitesse avec une loi qui contraint les paramètres à être corrélés en moyenne. Cette stratégie vise à faire ressortir des relations caractéristiques des objets géologiques de la ressource géothermique.Cette méthodologie d’inversion conjointe a été testée sur des modèles synthétiques. L’application aux données réelles acquises dans le Massif Central a permis de définir une zone en profondeur de forte corrélation interprétée comme la transition ductile fragile. La partie intermédiaire des modèles, plus homogène, permet de distinguer différentes unités géologiques séparées par une zone de faille. Enfin la partie superficielle se distingue par une forte hétérogénéité des paramètres résultants probablement de processus d’altération de surface. / The development of geothermal energy has led to the exploitation of resources established in varied geological and geodynamic contexts. Geophysical exploration of these complex reservoirs requires the use of several complementary imaging methods. This PhD thesis focuses on the exploration of a geothermal resource located within the fractured basement in the French Massif Central using magnetotelluric, ambient noise tomography and gravimetry. Magnetotelluric is a 3D imaging method with a good resolution power that is sensitive to the presence of water and hydrothermal weathering clays but is limited by its spatial coverage. Seismic noise tomography has a good vertical resolution but does not resolve well horizontal velocity variations. This method is sensitive to variations of the mechanical properties of rocks and thus to fractured media. Finally gravimetry brings constraint on the lithological variations and has a good lateral resolution but lacks vertical resolution.We present a method of joint inversion of seismic and gravimetric data under the constraint of a resistivity model obtained by independent magnetotelluric inversion. Joint inversion requires defining model couplings. By lack of prior knowledge of petrophysical relationships, we have coupled the density, resistivity and velocity models with a law that constraints the parameters to be correlated on average.This strategy aims to bring out the characteristic relationships of the geological objects of the geothermal resource. This joint inversion methodology has been tested on synthetic models. The application to the real data acquired in the Massif Central has made it possible to define a deep zone of high correlation interpreted as the fragile ductile transition. The intermediate part of the models, more homogeneous, allows to distinguish different geological units separated by a fault zone. Finally the superficial part is distinguished by strong heterogeneity of the parameters resulting probably from surface alteration process.

L'inversion conjointe géophysique est la méthode la plus efficace pour imager l'intérieur de la Terre. En intégrant plusieurs techniques géophysiques elle permet de réduire les incertitudes inhérentes à chacune et ainsi améliorer la compréhension de la Terre. Dans cette étude, nous utilisons les techniques des fonctions récepteur (RF) en sismologie, de la magnétotellurique (MT) et de la gravimétrie qui permettent de caractériser respectivement la vitesse des ondes S, la résistivité électrique et la densité du sous-sol.Le but de ce travail de recherche se divise en deux parties: une première, méthodologique, sur le développement d'une nouvelle approche d'inversion conjointe en 3D et une deuxième avec l'application de ces techniques (en approche jointe ou séparée) sur la Divergence Nord Tanzanienne pour mieux comprendre le phénomène de rupture continentale. Pour la partie méthodologie deux approches ont été développées : une entre les données de MT et de gravimétrie avec un calcul original de l'effet gravimétrique de la topographie qui permet de réduire le nombre de mailles tout en gardant une résolution satisfaisante ; et une deuxième méthode entre les données de MT et de RF par une nouvelle approche d'extrapolation des modèles 1D de vitesse en pseudo modèle 3D de vitesse. L'application de ces techniques sur la Tanzanie a permis de mettre en évidence un certain nombre de structures lithosphériques dont deux zones majeures à faible vitesse dans la croûte inférieure et dans le manteau supérieur. Cette dernière semble refléter des interactions entre des structures héritées d'âge protérozoïque et le panache mantellique Africain. / Geophysical joint inversion attempts to reproduce as best as possible the interior of the Earth. By integrating several geophysical techniques the joint inversion reduces the uncertainties of each methods and improves our understanding of the Earth structure. In this study we use the receiver functions (RF), the magnetotelluric (MT) and the gravity methods which enable to charaterize the Swave velocity, the electrical resistivity and the density, respectively. The objective of this research work is divided in two parts; first with the development of a new 3D joint inversion approach and then with the application of these methods (on a joint or separate approach) on the North Tanzanian Divergence to better understand the continental breakup.For the methodologic part two approaches have been developed; one between the MT and gravity data with an original computation of the topographic effect which decreases the number of cells while keeping a satisfaying resolution. And a second method between the MT and RF data where pseudo 3D velocity model are created and combined with the MT models to better takes into account the physical properties of the receiver function. The application of these methods on the Tanzania highlighted several lithospheric structures and particularly two low-velocity areas in the lower crust and the upper mantle. This latter suggests interactions with Proterozoic inherited structures and the African plume material.

Controlled Source Audio Magnetotellurics (CSAMT) is a geophysical method for characterizing the resistivity of the subsurface with the help of electromagnetic waves. The method is used for various purposes, such as geothermal- and hydrocarbon exploration, mineral prospecting and for investigation of groundwater resources. Electromagnetic fields are created by running an alternating current in a grounded electric dipole and by varying the frequency, different depths can be targeted. Orthogonal components of the electromagnetic fields are measured at receiver stations a few kilometers away from the source. From these field components, so called magnetotellurics transfer functions are estimated, which can be used to invert for the resistivity of the subsurface. The data used in this project is from a survey conducted in 2014 and 2016 in Kiruna by Uppsala University and the mining company LKAB. Measurements were made at 31 stations along two orthogonal profiles. The data have been processed earlier, but due to noise, especially in the lower frequencies, a significant part of the data set could not be inverted. The aim of this project was to improve the results by analyzing the data and testing different methods to remove noise. First, robust regression was used to account for possible non-Gaussian noise in the estimation of the magnetotelluric transfer functions. Except for one station on profile 1, the robust method did not improve the results, which suggests that the noise is mostly Gaussian. Then modified versions of least squares, each affected by a different bias, were used to estimate the transfer functions. Where there is more noise, the estimates should differ more due to their different biases. The estimates differed most for low frequencies and especially on the part of profile 2 that was measured in 2014. It was investigated whether the railway network could explain part of the low frequency noise. Measures were taken to reduce spectral leakage from the railway signal at 16 ⅔ Hz to the closest transmitter frequencies 14 Hz and 20 Hz, but no clear improvement was seen and more detailed studies need to be conducted to determine this matter. Finally, a method based on comparing the ratio of short-term and long-term averages was tested to remove transients in the measured time series of the electromagnetic field components. This proved difficult to implement due to the variability of the time series’ behavior between different stations, frequencies and field components. However, the method showed some potential for stations 9 and 10 on profile 1, and could probably be developed further to remove transients more efficiently and thus improve the data. / Magnetotellurik med kontrollerad källa (förkortat CSAMT på engelska) är en metod där elektromagnetiska fält används för att undersöka markens resistivitet. Resisitivitet är ett mått på hur bra eller dåligt marken leder elektriska strömmar. Metoden används till exempel för att mäta djupet till berggrunden, som oftast har högre resistivitet (sämre ledningsförmåga) än marken ovanför. Man kan också hitta metaller, så som guld och koppar, vilka har väldigt låg resistivitet (bra ledningsförmåga). Elektromagnetiska vågor skapas genom att man låter en växelström gå igenom en lång ledning. Vågorna färdas först genom luften och sen ner i marken. Hur djupt ner de når beror på växelströmmens frekvens; med låga frekvenser når vågorna djupare ner i marken än med höga. Under markytan inducerar de elektromagnetiska vågorna elektriska strömmar, så kallade telluriska strömmar (dvs. jordströmmar). Strömmarna blir svagare ju längre de färdas och hur snabbt de avtar i styrka beror på jordens resistivitet. Strömmarna skapar också nya elektriska och magnetiska fält som färdas tillbaka mot ytan. Vid markytan mäter man fältens styrka för olika frekveser, vilket då ger information om resistiviteten på olika djup. Från mätningarna tar man ofta fram så kallade magnetotelluriska överföringsfunktioner. Dessa överföringsfunktioner gör det lättare att tolka datan och ta reda på resistiviteten hos marken. I detta projekt har CSAMT-data använts från en undersökning i Kiruna som genomfördes av Uppsala Universitet och gruvföretaget LKAB. Datan har bearbetats tidigare, men på grund av mycket brus i mätningarna blev inte resultatet så bra som väntat. Brus kan komma från allt som genererar elektromagnetiska fält, till exempel elledningar, tågledningar eller naturliga variationer i jordens egna magnetfält. Målet med projektet var att förbättra resultatet genom att analysera datan och testa olika metoder för att ta bort brus. Den vanligaste metoden för att beräkna överföringsfunktionerna antar att det magnetiska fältet är fritt från brus. Detta är inte nödvändigtvis sant och kan leda till bias, alltså ett snedvridet resultat. Andra sätt att beräkna överföringsfunktionerna på ger olika bias. Det här kan man utnyttja för att se hur mycket brus som finns i datan. Om det inte finns något brus alls så blir alla överföringsfunktioner lika, medan om det finns mycket brus så skiljer de sig mer åt. På detta sätt upptäcktes att det var mer brus för frekvenserna 14 och 20 Hz (där 1 Hz är 1 svängning per sekund). En förklaring till det kan vara att tågledningar, som genererar elektromagnetiska fält med 16.67 Hz, ligger nära i frekvens och stör dessa signaler. För att minska brusets påverkan testades så kallad robust processering. Det innebär att man lägger mindre vikt vid de mätningar som tycks vara mycket annorlunda (alltså innehåller mer brus) från andra mätningar. Tyvärr så hjälpte inte denna strategi nämnvärt för att förbättra resultatet. Till sist tog vi fram en metod för att ta bort transienter, vilket är kortvarigt brus med hög intensitet. Transienter kan till exempel komma från åskblixtar, som ju är kortvariga elektriska urladdningar. Det visade sig dock att detta inte var helt enkelt, då det var svårt att se vad som var brus och vad som bara var naturliga variationer hos de elektromagnetiska fälten. Men i några fall kunde bruset urskiljas och därför verkar det troligt att fortsatt arbete med denna metod skulle kunna ge ännu bättre resultat.