Os caracteres quantitativos normalmente têm elevada importância agronômica e econômica, sendo geralmente os mais importantes nos programas de melhoramento das mais diversas espécies, como é o caso do milho (Zea mays L.). Dentre os vários caracteres considerados, destaca-se a produção de grãos e seus componentes. Dessa forma, o objeto de estudo do presente trabalho foi mapear QTL´s relacionados à vários caracteres de importância agronômica, estimar seus efeitos genéticos e entender as causas da correlação genética (pleiotropia ou ligação), em uma população de milho tropical. Para tanto, foi utilizada uma população com 400 progênies F2:3, foram avaliadas em quatro delineamento látice 10 x 10 em cinco ambientes. Os métodos de mapeamento utilizados foram o Mapeamento por Intervalo Composto (CIM), de forma univariada e multivariada considerando múltiplos caracteres (mCIM). O mapa de ligação previamente construído possui 117 locos marcadores microssatélites, com distância média de 14 cM entre eles em média. Os caracteres avaliados foram: produção de grãos (PG), peso da espiga (PE), prolificidade (PROL), número de espigas (NE), número de ramificações do pendão (NRP), rendimento (REND); altura de planta (AP), altura da espiga (AE), comprimento da espiga (CE), diâmetro da espiga (DE), número de fileiras da espiga (NFI), número de grãos por fileira (NGFI), número de folhas acima da primeira espiga (NFO), posição relativa da espiga (PR), porcentagem de acamamento de plantas (ACP) e porcentagem de quebramento do colmo (QUE). Em geral poucos QTL´s foram mapeados devida à alta interação G x A, e esses resultados foram consistentes com os apresentados na literatura. Usando o mCIM, foi possível separar QTL´s ligados de QTL´s com efeito pleiotrópico, permitindo melhor entendimento das causas genéticas da correlação. De forma geral, caracteres mais correlacionados como PG e AP tiveram predomínio de QTL´s pleiotrópicos, enquanto que caracteres menos correlacionados (como por exemplo, CE e NGFI) tiveram QTL´s segregando de forma independente ou com ligação entre si, ou seja, com baixa presença de efeitos pleiotrópicos. Caracteres correlacionados negativamente com os demais em geral apresentaram efeitos aditivos com sinais opostos aos dos demais caracteres. Dessa forma, foi possível identificar regiões que podem ser manipuladas para realizar seleção assistida de forma mais eficiente. De forma geral, foi difícil localizar QTL´s de grande efeito, principalmente com uso do mCIM, dada a presença de elevada interação entre genótipos e ambientes, que fez que que apenas os QTL´s mais estáveis fossem mapeados. / Quantitative traits normally are the most important ones in plant breeding programs for several species, such as maize (Zea mays L.). Several traits are commonly evaluated and grain yield and its components are normally the major focus of selection. The objective of this study was to map QTL related to the several traits of agronomic importance, estimating their genetic effects and genomic locations, aiming to understand the genetic causes of correlation (pleiotropy or linkage) in tropical maize population. A population with 400 F 2:3 inbred lines was used and the progenies were evaluated in five different environments in Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil. QTL were mapped using Composite Interval Mapping (CIM) for several traits in a univariate way, and also using an extension of CIM allowing QTL mapping for several traits simultaneously (multivariate CIM, or mCIM). The genetic map was previously estimated and had 117 microsatelite loci, with average distance of 14 cM between them. The traits considered were: grain yield (GY), ear weight (EW), prolificacy (PROL), ear number (EN), tassel branch number (TBN), plant height (PH), ear height (EH), ear length (EL), ear diameter (ED), kernel row number (KRN), kernels per row (KR), leaf number (LN), ear position (EP) and stalk lodging (SL). In general, few stable QTL were mapped due to high G x E interaction, and the results were consistent with previous ones reported on the literature. Using mCIM, it was possible to separate linked QTL from QTL with pleiotropic effects, allowing a better understand of the genetic causes of the correlation. In general, traits with higher correlation such as GY and PH tend to have more pleiotropic QTL than low correlated traits, such as EL and KR, which have some linked QTL. Negative correlated traits in general had QTL with additive effects with opposite signs. Based on the results, it was possible to identify regions that can be manipulated to do marker assisted selection in a more efficient way, combining QTL alleles in order to build favorable genotypes.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Research into markers for the detection of genetic diversity and cultivar identification has become an important component of the genetic improvement of crops. However, the incorporation of marker assisted selection (MAS) as a tool for the identification and characterization of breeding material has not been fully implemented in the breeding of spring triticale at Stellenbosch University’s Plant Breeding laboratory (SU-PBL). The present study served as a case study in order to achieve this. The first part of the study concerned the detection of genetic diversity in 101 newly sourced triticale cultivars, from a USDA germplasm bank, together with five local control cultivars, in order to identify possible crossing parents. Eight SSR markers, including five derived from rye and three from wheat, and five agronomic characteristics were used to assess diversity. In seedling screening the foreign cultivars showed resistance towards the stem rust isolate used, but were mostly susceptible to the leaf rust isolate. Out of the 8 SSR markers tested, 7 markers were polymorphic and revealed 140 alleles varying from 12 to 26 with an average of 17.5 alleles per locus. The observed polymorphic information content (PIC) value ranged from 0.39 to 0.88 with an average of 0.70, indicative of the good discriminatory ability of the SSR markers. The data revealed that the South African cultivars were genetically closely related to cultivars from the USA and Canada. The second part of the study focused on the introgression of a blue aleurone layer gene (Ba), carried by a wheat cultivar, ‘Cltr1202STR’, and purple pericarp genes (Pp1; Pp3) also carried by a wheat cultivar, ‘Amethyst’, into a triticale background. Unfortunately the introgression of the purple pericarp genes failed. Two lines containing the blue aleurone layer, 11T023 and 11T028, were however successfully created. Molecular typing of these lines with SSR markers were able to show that BC4F1 line 11T023 (Ba) B was genetically similar to the recurrent parent ‘Agbeacon’; and that the BC4F1 11T028 line (Ba) A was closest to the ‘US2007’ recurrent parent. The study illustrated that MAS was a reliable tool for detecting genetic diversity in newly sourced germplasm, and assisted in making a backcross breeding effort more effective. The data generated from MAS could therefore clearly assist in making the SU-PBL breeding program more effective by moving, better informed, decision making toward data based partly on the genotype, thereby minimizing the risks associated with purely phenotypic based decisions. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Navorsing rondom die gebruik van merkers vir die bepaling van genetiese-diversiteit en kultivar identifikasie is ‘n toenemend belangriker komponent vir die genetiese verbetering van gewasse. Die inkorporering van merker-bemiddelde-seleksie (MBS) as gereedskap vir die identifikasie en karaktarisering van telingsmateriaal is nog nie ten volle geïmplimenteer in die lente korogtelingsprogram van die Stellenbosch Universiteit Planteteeltlaboratorium (SU-PTL). Die studie het gedien as gevallestudie ten einde dit te bereik. Die eerste gedeelte van die studie het gehandel oor die tipering van die genetiese diversiteit van ‘n 101 kultivars verkry vanaf ‘n USDA kiemplasmabank saam met 5 plaaslike kontroles. Dit was gedien ten einde moontlike kruisings-ouers te kon identifiseer. Agt SSR merkers, insluitend vyf afkomstig van rog en drie vanaf koring, asook vyf agronomiese kenmerke is aangewend om die materiaal se diversiteit te tipeer. Saailingtoetsing is ook gedoen en het aangetoon dat die meeste kultivars weerstandig was vir die stamroes-isolaat, maar nie die blaarroes-isolaat nie. Van die agt SSR merkers getoets het sewe getoon om polimorfies te wees en het ‘n 140 allele gegee wat gewissel het vanaf 12 tot 26 per lokus met ‘n gemiddeld van 17.5. Die waargenome polimorfiese inligtings inhoud (PII) waarde het gewissel vanaf 0.39 tot 0.88 met ‘n gemiddeld van 0.70. Die merkers kon dus suksesvol diskrimineer. Die data het aangetoon dat die Suid-Afrikaanse kultivars genetiese die naaste verwant was aan die kultivars afkomstig vanaf die VSA en Kanada. Die tweede gedeelte van die studie het gefokus op die introgressie van ‘n blou aleuron-laag geen (Ba), afkomstig vanaf die koringkultivar ‘Cltr1202STR’, en twee pers-perikarp gene (Pp1; Pp3), afkomstig vanaf die koringkultivar ‘Amethyst’, na ‘n korog agtergrond. Ongelukkig het die oordrag van die pers-perikarp gene gefaal. Twee lyne wat die blou aleuron- laag bevat, 11T023 en 11T028, is egter suksesvol geskep. Tipering van die lyne met die SSR merkers het aangetoon dat die BC4F1 lyn 11T023 (Ba) B genetiese baie na aan die herhalende ouers ‘Agbeacon’ is en dat die BC4F1 11T028 lyn (Ba) A nader is aan die herhalende ouer ‘US2007’. Die studie het dus geïllustreer dat MBS gebruik kan word as ‘n betroubare manier om genetiese diversiteit te bepaal en by te dra tot die sukses van ‘n terugkruisingsprogram. Die data wat dus voortspruit uit MBS kan dus help om die SU-PTL se telingsprogram te assisteer in die besluitnemingsproses tydens teling deur beter genotipe gebaseerde besluite te neem wat die riskio van fenotipe gebaseerde besluite kan help verminder.

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No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese - Gabriel Feresin Pantalião - 2016.pdf: 3525081 bytes, checksum: f216c5eaec8666868c34105435767ccd (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-04-06 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the most important cereal for feeding. It is estimated that the demand for rice grains increases considerably in a reduction scenario of cultivable area and scarcity of water resources, which will require an increase in production compared to current levels. To solve this problem, a viable alternative would be the exploitation of genetic diversity available in rice germplasm banks. Rice breeding programs should prioritize the search for new strategies to increase yield in a variety of environmental conditions. The exploitation of genetic diversity allowed the identification of favorable alleles not present in the germplasm of rice varieties used in breeding programs, as well as obtaining new allelic combinations of genes related to important agronomic traits and that could significantly contribute to the achievement of more productive cultivars. In this context, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are designed to analyze variations in the DNA sequence of the entire genome in an effort to identify associations with phenotypic traits of interest. It is expected, therefore, that the results of the GWAS analysis, together with the improvements obtained with the next generation sequencing technologies (NGS) in search of a large number of SNPs, such as genotyping by sequencing (GBS), be used to investigate the genetic control of traits related to yield. This study aimed to identify genomic regions of rice related to yield from the GWAS methodology using genotypes of Embrapa Rice Core Collection (ERiCC). The GWAS analysis was conducted from a panel of 550 accessions of the ERiCC, and after the imputation of raw data, were accounted 445,589 SNPs distributed along the 12 rice chromosomes. The molecular information was integrated with phenotypic data derived from yield evaluation experiments conducted in nine essays, divided into two cultivation systems (irrigated and rainfed) and three agricultural years (2004/2005, 2005/2006 and 2006/2007). From the joint analysis in all experiments, 31 SNPs were significantly associated with yield, but only three had the lowest frequency allele with positive effect. The joint analysis of irrigated experiments identified three SNPs associated with yield, of which one with lower frequency allele with a positive effect, whereas in the rainfed experiments was identified only one SNP with lower frequency allele associated to positive effect. Subsequently, a stepwise regression analysis was performed to keep in the model only SNPs without overlapping effects, so being selected 15 SNPs markers. After in silico analysis, it was found that the most productive accessions showed 80 to 100% of favorable alleles while the less productive showed 27 to 33% of favorable alleles. For this set of markers to be used in an assisted selection routine, they should also be validated in the laboratory. In the total joint analysis, from 44 genes identified, 14 had no particular function, while from the joint analysis of experiments irrigated and rainfed, from the six genes, only one had no particular function. The search for Arabidopsis homologues genes in the 15 unknown function rice genes resulted in four genes with known function. The expressed products of the set of genes were related to metabolic processes, response to biotic, abiotic, endogenous and external stimulus, post- embryonic multicellular development, growth and morphogenesis, which influence the number of grains, grains weight and photosynthetic capacity, all related to rice yield and be useful in indicating candidate genes to cloning and transformation, enabling the development of genetically superior rice cultivars. Among the genes identified as associated to productivity, nine were previously described in the literature, and of these, six were related proteins that influence the number and seed weight, and photosynthetic capacity: LOC_Os02g44290.1, LOC_Os04g35370.1, LOC_Os02g44260.1, LOC_Os02g44280 .1 LOC_Os09g36230.1 and LOC_Os01g66160.1. These genes are considered as candidates for cloning and transformation of rice, in order, through its overexpression, enable the development of higher yielding rice cultivars. / O arroz cultivado (Oryza sativa L.) é um dos cereais mais importantes para a alimentação humana. Estima-se que a demanda por grãos de arroz aumentará de forma considerável em um cenário de redução da área cultivável e escassez de recursos hídricos, o que demandará um aumento na produção em relação aos níveis atuais. Para solucionar esse problema, uma alternativa viável é a exploração da diversidade genética disponível em bancos de germoplasma de arroz. Os programas de melhoramento de arroz devem, portanto, priorizar a busca por novas estratégias que visem o aumento da produtividade em diversos tipos de condições ambientais. A exploração da diversidade genética permitiria a identificação de alelos favoráveis ainda não presentes no germoplasma das variedades de arroz utilizadas nos programas de melhoramento, assim como a obtenção de novas combinações alélicas de genes relacionados a caracteres de importância agronômica e que poderiam contribuir significativamente para a obtenção de cultivares mais produtivas. Nesse contexto, estudos de associação genômica ampla (GWAS) têm por finalidade analisar variações na sequência do DNA em todo o genoma, em um esforço para identificar associações a caracteres fenotípicos de interesse. Espera-se, assim, que os resultados das análises GWAS, juntamente com os aprimoramentos obtidos com as tecnologias de sequenciamento de nova geração (NGS) na busca por um grande número de SNPs, como é o caso da genotipagem por sequenciamento (GBS), sejam utilizados para investigar o controle genético dos caracteres relacionados à produtividade. Esse trabalho objetivou identificar regiões genômicas do arroz relacionadas à produtividade a partir da metodologia GWAS utilizando os genótipos da Coleção Nuclear de Arroz da Embrapa (CNAE). A análise GWAS foi conduzida a partir de um painel composto por 550 acessos da CNAE, sendo que após a imputação dos dados brutos, foram contabilizados 445.589 SNPs distribuídos ao longo dos 12 cromossomos do arroz. As informações moleculares foram integradas aos dados fenotípicos derivados dos experimentos de avaliação de produtividade conduzidos em nove ensaios, divididos em dois sistemas de cultivo (irrigado e sequeiro) e por três anos agrícolas (2004/2005, 2005/2006 e 2006/2007). A partir da análise conjunta em todos os experimentos, 31 SNPs foram associados de forma significativa à produtividade, com apenas três apresentarando o alelo de menor frequência com efeito positivo. Nas análises conjuntas dos experimentos irrigados foram identificados três SNPs associados à produtividade, um dos quais com alelo de menor frequência com efeito positivo, enquanto que nos experimentos em sequeiro foi identificado apenas um SNP, com alelo de menor frequência associado ao efeito positivo. Posteriormente foi realizada uma análise de regressão stepwise para se manter no modelo apenas os SNPs sem efeitos de sobreposição, sendo então selecionados 15 marcadores SNP. Após uma análise in silico, constatou-se que os acessos mais produtivos apresentaram 80 a 100% dos alelos favoráveis, enquanto os menos produtivos apresentaram 27 a 33% dos alelos favoráveis. Para que esse conjunto de marcadores seja utilizado em uma rotina de seleção assistida, ainda deverão ser validados em laboratório. Na análise conjunta total, entre os 44 genes identificados, 14 não apresentavam função determinada, enquanto a partir da análise conjunta dos experimentos irrigados e em sequeiro, entre os seis genes, apenas um não apresentava função determinada. A busca por homólogos em Arabidopsis nos 15 genes de arroz de função desconhecida resultou em quatro genes com função conhecida. Os produtos expressos do conjunto de genes estavam relacionados a processos metabólicos, resposta a estímulos bióticos, abióticos, endógenos e externos, desenvolvimento multicelular pós-embrionário, crescimento e morfogênese, que influenciam no número, peso de grãos, e capacidade fotossintética, todos relacionados com a produtividade em arroz, sendo útil na indicação de genes candidatos à clonagem e transformação, possibilitando o desenvolvimento de cultivares de arroz geneticamente superiores. Dentre os genes identificados como associados a produtividade, nove foram descritos previamente na literatura, e destes, seis foram relacionados a proteínas que influenciam no número e peso de grãos, e capacidade fotossintética: LOC_Os02g44290.1, LOC_Os04g35370.1, LOC_Os02g44260.1, LOC_Os02g44280.1, LOC_Os09g36230.1 e LOC_Os01g66160.1. Esses são considerados genes candidatos à clonagem e transformação do arroz, a fim de, por meio de sua superexpressão, possibilitar o desenvolvimento de cultivares de arroz mais produtivas.

A disponibilidade de informações baseadas nos marcadores genéticos surgiu como oportunidade de aprimorar os programas de melhoramento animal pela incorporação desses efeitos nas avaliações genéticas. Nesse contexto, o presente estudo teve como objetivos comparar modelos que consideraram ou não os efeitos dos marcadores para a estimação dos valores genéticos dos animais, bem como estimar os efeitos de substituição alélica dos marcadores por seis metodologias distintas (regressão múltipla bayesiana, regressão de cumeeira bayesiana, Bayes A, Bayes B, Bayes Cπ e LASSO bayesiano) e avaliar o impacto da inclusão desses efeitos na acurácia das estimativas dos valores genéticos e os conflitos de seleção existentes aos serem comparadas as classificações dos animais com base nos valores genéticos clássicos e nos valores genéticos assistidos por marcadores. Dados de 83.404 animais pertencentes a um programa de seleção de animas da raça Nelore, mensurados para peso na desmama, ganho de peso pós-desmama, perímetro escrotal e escore de musculosidade, que corresponderam a 116.652 animais na matriz de parentesco, foram utilizados. Do total de animais com informações fenotípicas e genealógicas disponíveis, apenas 3.160 foram genotipados para 106 marcadores do tipo SNP. Os resultados obtidos para a comparação de modelos não demonstraram vantagens claras da inclusão conjunta dos efeitos poligênicos e dos marcadores nos modelos de avaliação genética, entretanto, os modelos que incluíram apenas o efeito dos marcadores tiveram os piores ajustes e desempenhos preditivos. As diferenças observadas entre as estimativas dos efeitos de substituição alélica dos marcadores pelas diferentes metodologias analisadas se devem à maneira como cada método regulariza esses efeitos. A incorporação das informações dos marcadores nas avaliações genéticas proporcionou, no geral, um aumento na acurácia das estimativas dos valores genéticos, especialmente para os tourinhos de reposição. Ao serem comparados os 20% melhores animais classificados com base no valor genético clássico e no valor genético assistido por marcadores, os maiores conflitos de seleção foram observados para os touros e tourinhos genotipados. Em suma, o presente projeto demonstrou que, embora a utilização de painéis de marcadores de muito baixa densidade não altere a capacidade preditiva dos modelos de avaliação genética, esses têm impacto na acurácia das estimativas dos valores genéticos. / The availability of molecular markers information turned out to be an opportunity to improve animal breeding programs, by the inclusion of those effects in the estimation of breeding values. Under that perspective, the aims of present research were to compare genetic evaluation models that assumed or not markers effects on the estimation of breeding values, as well estimate the allelic substitution effects of SNP markers applying six different methodologies (Bayesian multiple regression, Bayesian ridge regression, Bayes A, Bayes B, Bayes Cπ and Bayesian Lasso) and evaluate the impact of these effects on the reliability of breeding values and the divergences on animals classification based on classical breeding values and marker assisted breeding values. Data of 83,404 animals belonging to a Nellore beef cattle (Bos indicus) selection program, measured for post-weaning gain, scrotal circumference and muscle score, corresponding to 116,562 animals on the relationship matrix, were used. From those animals, a set of 3,160 animals with phenotypic and genealogy data available, was genotyped for a panel of 106 SNP markers. Model comparison results did not demonstrate clearly the advantage of assuming polygenic and markers effects together in genetic evaluation models, however, models that considered only markers effects presented the worst global fit and predictive ability. Differences observed on the markers effects estimates were due the shrinkage process applied by each method. The incorporation of markers information on genetic evaluations provided, in general, increases on the reliability of breeding values, mainly for replacement young animals. Comparing the 20% best animals classified by classical breeding value and marker assisted breeding value, the highest divergences were observed to sires and young bulls that were genotyped. Summarizing, although this research showed that the inclusion of very low density SNP chip information was not able to improve the predictive ability of genetic evaluation models, they increased the reliability of breeding values estimates.

Os caracteres quantitativos normalmente têm elevada importância agronômica e econômica, sendo geralmente os mais importantes nos programas de melhoramento das mais diversas espécies, como é o caso do milho (Zea mays L.). Dentre os vários caracteres considerados, destaca-se a produção de grãos e seus componentes. Dessa forma, o objeto de estudo do presente trabalho foi mapear QTL´s relacionados à vários caracteres de importância agronômica, estimar seus efeitos genéticos e entender as causas da correlação genética (pleiotropia ou ligação), em uma população de milho tropical. Para tanto, foi utilizada uma população com 400 progênies F2:3, foram avaliadas em quatro delineamento látice 10 x 10 em cinco ambientes. Os métodos de mapeamento utilizados foram o Mapeamento por Intervalo Composto (CIM), de forma univariada e multivariada considerando múltiplos caracteres (mCIM). O mapa de ligação previamente construído possui 117 locos marcadores microssatélites, com distância média de 14 cM entre eles em média. Os caracteres avaliados foram: produção de grãos (PG), peso da espiga (PE), prolificidade (PROL), número de espigas (NE), número de ramificações do pendão (NRP), rendimento (REND); altura de planta (AP), altura da espiga (AE), comprimento da espiga (CE), diâmetro da espiga (DE), número de fileiras da espiga (NFI), número de grãos por fileira (NGFI), número de folhas acima da primeira espiga (NFO), posição relativa da espiga (PR), porcentagem de acamamento de plantas (ACP) e porcentagem de quebramento do colmo (QUE). Em geral poucos QTL´s foram mapeados devida à alta interação G x A, e esses resultados foram consistentes com os apresentados na literatura. Usando o mCIM, foi possível separar QTL´s ligados de QTL´s com efeito pleiotrópico, permitindo melhor entendimento das causas genéticas da correlação. De forma geral, caracteres mais correlacionados como PG e AP tiveram predomínio de QTL´s pleiotrópicos, enquanto que caracteres menos correlacionados (como por exemplo, CE e NGFI) tiveram QTL´s segregando de forma independente ou com ligação entre si, ou seja, com baixa presença de efeitos pleiotrópicos. Caracteres correlacionados negativamente com os demais em geral apresentaram efeitos aditivos com sinais opostos aos dos demais caracteres. Dessa forma, foi possível identificar regiões que podem ser manipuladas para realizar seleção assistida de forma mais eficiente. De forma geral, foi difícil localizar QTL´s de grande efeito, principalmente com uso do mCIM, dada a presença de elevada interação entre genótipos e ambientes, que fez que que apenas os QTL´s mais estáveis fossem mapeados. / Quantitative traits normally are the most important ones in plant breeding programs for several species, such as maize (Zea mays L.). Several traits are commonly evaluated and grain yield and its components are normally the major focus of selection. The objective of this study was to map QTL related to the several traits of agronomic importance, estimating their genetic effects and genomic locations, aiming to understand the genetic causes of correlation (pleiotropy or linkage) in tropical maize population. A population with 400 F 2:3 inbred lines was used and the progenies were evaluated in five different environments in Piracicaba, São Paulo, Brazil. QTL were mapped using Composite Interval Mapping (CIM) for several traits in a univariate way, and also using an extension of CIM allowing QTL mapping for several traits simultaneously (multivariate CIM, or mCIM). The genetic map was previously estimated and had 117 microsatelite loci, with average distance of 14 cM between them. The traits considered were: grain yield (GY), ear weight (EW), prolificacy (PROL), ear number (EN), tassel branch number (TBN), plant height (PH), ear height (EH), ear length (EL), ear diameter (ED), kernel row number (KRN), kernels per row (KR), leaf number (LN), ear position (EP) and stalk lodging (SL). In general, few stable QTL were mapped due to high G x E interaction, and the results were consistent with previous ones reported on the literature. Using mCIM, it was possible to separate linked QTL from QTL with pleiotropic effects, allowing a better understand of the genetic causes of the correlation. In general, traits with higher correlation such as GY and PH tend to have more pleiotropic QTL than low correlated traits, such as EL and KR, which have some linked QTL. Negative correlated traits in general had QTL with additive effects with opposite signs. Based on the results, it was possible to identify regions that can be manipulated to do marker assisted selection in a more efficient way, combining QTL alleles in order to build favorable genotypes.

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The use of nitrogen (N) fertilizers is both costly to farmers and contributes to environmental degradation. N applied to wheat accounts for 18% of N applied to farmland globally, making it a prime target for reducing and optimizing N application. Chapter I is a review on nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in wheat, with emphasis on breeding efforts and genetic resources available to increase NUE. The concept of effective use of nitrogen (EUN) as yield per unit N applied as a measure of N use, is also introduced. Chapter II is a study using two bi-parental double haploid families to evaluate genetic variability of both the genetic main effects (intercept) and linear response to N (slope) and determine the feasibility of selection for EUN in wheat. Using cross validation, a genomic prediction accuracy of 0.68 for intercept and 0.50 for slope was found, indicating that EUN is under genetic control and can be selected for. The prospect of breeding for EUN under limited resources, i.e., using fewer N rates and fewer experimental plots, is also explored. It was found that two different N treatments can be used to produce accurate predictions of intercept and slope as high as 0.98 and 0.95, respectively. Chapter III uses the same population described in chapter II to further investigate feasibility of selection for EUN using a normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) obtained from multi-spectral aerial images gathered throughout the growing season. Cumulative photosynthesis across the growing season was estimated by integration across the NDVI curve, and compared to grain yield estimates to determine the efficacy of aerial imaging to identify high EUN lines. NDVI values and the area under the NDVI curve were able to predict yield and had the strongest ability to predict yield in moderate to low N treatments, with R2 values as high as 0.81 and 0.78 respectively. / Master of Science / Chapter I is a review on nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in wheat, with emphasis on breeding efforts and genetic resources available to increase NUE. The concept of effective use of nitrogen (EUN) defined as grain yield per unit N applied, is contrasted to NUE as a more economic breeding goal. Chapter II uses two bi-parental mapping populations to evaluate genetic variability of both the genetic main effects and the linear response to N and determine the feasibility of selection for EUN in wheat. The efficacy of genomic prediction for EUN is explored and the prospect of breeding for EUN under limited resources is also explored. Chapter III uses the same populations described in chapter II to further investigate the feasibility of selection for EUN using a normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) obtained from multi-spectral aerial images gathered throughout the growing season. Cumulative photosynthesis across the growing season was estimated and found to be predictive of grain yield estimates at accuracies ranging from 0.31 to 0.78.

Powdery mildew, caused by the pathogen Blumeria graminis (DC) Speer (Syn. Erysiphe graminis DC) f. sp. tritici, is a major disease of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Race-specific resistance is easily identified in the field due to its qualitative phenotype and it is easy to incorporate because it is inherited as a single gene. Unfortunately, this type of resistance is easily overcome by the pathogen. Traits associated with quantitative trait loci (QTL) such as adult-plant resistance (APR), have become popular with plant breeders because of their durability over a wide geographic range and time. Due to the quantitative nature of these genes, they are difficult to study requiring multiple assessments of disease development under natural conditions in more than one location over a period of several weeks. Numerous QTL for APR to powdery mildew have been mapped in independent studies in different wheat backgrounds. The wheat cultivar Massey has been the subject of several studies due to its APR to powdery mildew that has remained effective for several decades. However, it has been difficult to identity simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers that are tightly linked to the QTL for APR in Massey. Such markers give breeders an advantage by allowing them to quickly identify and select for traits that would be difficult to distinguish in the field among breeding progeny from several backgrounds. Therefore, identification of tightly linked markers associated with APR to powdery mildew is necessary so that these traits can be selected for reliably in progeny. / Master of Science

Wheat (Triticum aestivum, L) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) are widely grown as winter annual grains in a double crop rotation with soybean (Glycine max, L. Merr.) in much of the U.S. Improved management strategies and the development cultivars that meet the quality requirements of higher value end-use markets is important to increase production and profitability of winter annual grains and the double crop rotation in the Eastern U.S. In Chapter I, fifteen commercially relevant winter wheat genotypes ranging in maturity were sown in a split-plot design (sowing date=main plot, genotype=subplot) at three different sowing dates (considered to be 'very early' (20-28 days before recommended), 'early (6-11 days before recommended)', or 'recommended') and replicated three times at eight environments (site-year) from 2015-2018 in VA and KY. Grain yield, tiller estimation, heading date, protein, and 1000-kernel weight were assessed for each yield plot. At all environments, sowing earlier in the fall achieved an earlier (P<0.05) heading date, while grain yields varied depending on environment and genotype. Genotype by sowing date interactions were non-significant (P<0.05) at five site-years and significant (P<0.05) at three site-years. Molecular markers can be associated with phenotypic traits via quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping, these markers can be used by breeders in marker assisted selection (MAS) to indirectly select phenotypic traits that are difficult or expensive to measure. In Chapter II, the genetic architecture of end-use quality is investigated in two soft red winter wheat bi-parental (Pioneer '25R47' / 'Jamestown' and Pioneer '26R46' / 'Tribute'). Both populations were genotyped with a public 90,000 wheat iSelect SNP-Array, grown over two crop seasons at two Virginia sites, evaluated for quality traits at the USDA-ARS Soft Wheat Quality Lab (SWQL), and analyzed with QTL mapping. This chapter describes a total of 24 putative QTL that were identified on 13 different chromosomes and associated with grain characteristics, milling, and/or baking performance along with phenotypic data for both populations, other putative QTL, and transgressive progeny with exceptional flour yield and cookie diameters. A region on 3A (Qfy.vt.3A.Jtwn) is a strong candidate to be utilized for MAS in soft red winter wheat breeding programs as it explained 6.9-10.3% (Pioneer 25R47 / Jamestown) and 4.6-17.0% (Pioneer 26R46 / Tribute) of the phenotypic variation for flour yield. In Chapter III, malt quality genetic structure was investigated in two winter 'malt x feed' doubled haploid barley breeding populations. Both populations were genotyped with the iSelect InfiniumTM SNP assay consisting of 50,000 barley SNPs, grown in two to three Virginia environments (Blacksburg and Warsaw) during 2017 - 2019, and characterized for 11 phenotypic traits associated with malting quality. QTL mapping validated six previously reported regions (Mohammadi, et al., 2015, GrainGenes 3.0, 2019) that are strongly associated (LOD > 3.0) with relevant malt quality traits. Phenotypic variation for malt quality was largely and consistently explained by QTL on chromosomes 1H, 5H, and 7H in the Endeavor / VA09B-34 population and by two separate QTL on 1H in the Violetta / VA09B-34 population. A region on 4H corresponding with QDp.DiMo-4H, explained between 12.1 - 42.2% (Endeavor / VA09B-34) and 30.0 - 55.7% (Violetta / VA09B-34) of the phenotypic variation for diastatic power (DU). These QTL are recommended for MAS in order to aid breeding strategies that aim to select for improved malting characteristics in Eastern U.S. malt barley breeding material. / Doctor of Philosophy / Wheat (Triticum aestivum, L) and barley (Hordeum vulgare) are staple crops throughout the world, and are the third and fourth most produced cereals crop according to the FAO. Primarily grown for human consumption, wheat and barley provide a significant percentage of the nutritional requirements for the human populations. According to the United Nations, wheat contributes 20% of all calories consumed by humans. Barley is the primary ingredient used to make beer. Increased productivity of all cropping and livestock systems is required in order to feed a growing human population while also restoring and preserving natural ecosystems. This can be accomplished through breeding and improved cropping systems management. Planting of existing cropland more frequently is fundamental to the improvement of cropping system productivity. In much of the U.S. (southern two-thirds of the lower 48), annual winter grains such as wheat and barley can be grown over the winter and spring in between the typical corn (Zea mays subsp. mays) and soybean (Glycine max, L. Merr.) growing seasons. Therefore, producing three crops in two years, as opposed to only two. Only between 6 and 11 million acres are double cropped in the US annually, for perspective, in 2018, 89 million acres of both corn and soybeans, which can only grow in summer, were planted. Over half of the soybean (~45 million) acres in Midwestern and Southeastern states could support double cropping. This is a major opportunity to maximize output per unit area, freeing up less productive land to be restored as natural ecosystems, potentially increasing carbon sequestration and species biodiversity. Winter annual grains have a very similar composition (high carbohydrate, low protein and oil) to corn, and could fill similar end-use markets currently dominated by corn (i.e. ethanol or livestock feed). For double cropping to be more widely deployed, it must be more profitable. Increased profitability of growing three crops in two years as opposed to two must outweigh the added cost of planting, managing, harvesting, and marketing the additional winter crop. Therefore, it is important to investigate management strategies that could increase production per unit area and develop new winter annual cultivars with improved end-use characteristics in order to make the winter annual more desirable to the end-users. Chapter I investigates sowing winter wheat earlier in the fall (i.e. 1st week of Oct. or last week of Sept.) in order to achieve an earlier harvest in the spring and earlier soybean planting (yield decreases 0.5 to 1 bu/ac per day that sowing is delayed), while also offering other benefits such as better-established root systems going into winter, which improves water infiltration and reduces erosion. At all environments, sowing earlier in the fall achieved an earlier heading date, while grain yields varied depending on environment and genotype. Genotype by sowing date interactions were non-significant at five site-years and significant at three site-years. Chapters II and III investigate the genetic architecture of winter wheat and winter barley breeding populations for end-use quality traits (milling/baking and malting). This was done in order to identify molecular markers that could be used to screen breeding material for improved end-use quality. The markers could then be used to assist breeders in developing soft red winter wheat cultivars with greater flour yields/improved baking performance and winter malt barley cultivars that can be grown in the Eastern U.S. and are suitable for the craft beer market. Chapter II describes 24 genomic regions that influences milling/baking performance in two soft red winter wheat breeding populations. Chapter III describes 6 genomic regions that influence malting performance in two winter barley breeding populations.