Some research suggests that the reason men and women choose mates who are physically similar to them, is because though they may be genetically similar (given the physical characteristics), the fact that there is no kinship allows for genetic stability. Some researchers believe this is a product of evolutionary forces, therefore allowing possible mates to find those whom they would see as compatible and fertile. Researchers have found that as children we imprint our parent’s facial features, which helps develop the normal facial recognition later. With this knowledge it is suggested that we subconsciously use our parent’s facial imprint as our standard for beauty when it comes to finding a mate. As children share a resemblance to their parents, it is not unlikely that as adults, men and women then choose mates who are physically similar to themselves. The current study examined whether men and women look for mates who are physically similar, even if they do not realize it. This study looked at a range of physical characteristics from hair color to height to body type. The wide range of physical characteristics allowed participants to be very specific about the ideal physical features they desire in a mate. It also allowed participants to be specific about their own physical characteristics. The survey was distributed through an online link that was distributed by upper and lower level sociology professors as well as social media sites. The results of this study are important because most research on heterosexual relationships focus on what characteristics each partner are looking to find. However, there is very little research on the phenomena of heterosexual partners choosing a mate who are physically similar.

My Ph.D. research has examined the evolution of mating preferences and their role in speciation. I have addressed these topics empirically, using sympatric species pairs of limnetic and benthic threespine sticklebacks, and theoretically, with multilocus population genetics. Sticklebacks are small fish that occur in lakes, streams and estuaries throughout British Columbia. Most lakes contain one type of stickleback, however, several lakes support two differentially adapted sympatric species: a large benthic form (benthic), and a smaller zooplanktivorous form (limnetic). Chapter 2 examines the role of species interactions in shaping male mating preferences. I determined that the mate preferences of the small species have shifted from preferring large females (the ancestral state) to preferring small females due either to selection against hybrids (reinforcement), or to egg predation by the larger benthic species. Chapter 3 explores the idea that sexual imprinting may facilitate assortative mating between benthic and limnetic sticklebacks. Sexual imprinting occurs when individuals imprint on the phenotype of their parents, and subsequently prefer mates that resemble their parents. The results suggested that sexual imprinting does not contribute to assortative mating between the sympatric species pairs, implying that genetics are more important than early learning for the formation of mate preferences. Chapter 4 focuses on differences in male breeding colour between benthics and limnetics. The results reveal that limnetic males have more intense red and blue coloration than benthic and solitary males. These differences in colour could be due to reinforcement, to differences in visual sensitivity of females, or to territorial interactions between males. Chapter 5 examines the evolution of female mating preferences under different scenarios of sex-linkage, when the male display trait is sexually antagonistic. Theoretical analysis suggests that sexually antagonistic traits on the X chromosome (males XY, females XX), females will evolve to prefer mates carrying alleles beneficial to their daughters. In contrast, with a Z-linked trait (males ZZ, females ZW), females more often evolve preferences for mates carrying alleles beneficial to their sons (e.g., flashy displays). This provides an explanation for why males in ZW species have more elaborate sexual displays than males in XY species.

My Ph.D. research has examined the evolution of mating preferences and their role in speciation. I have addressed these topics empirically, using sympatric species pairs of limnetic and benthic threespine sticklebacks, and theoretically, with multilocus population genetics. Sticklebacks are small fish that occur in lakes, streams and estuaries throughout British Columbia. Most lakes contain one type of stickleback, however, several lakes support two differentially adapted sympatric species: a large benthic form (benthic), and a smaller zooplanktivorous form (limnetic). Chapter 2 examines the role of species interactions in shaping male mating preferences. I determined that the mate preferences of the small species have shifted from preferring large females (the ancestral state) to preferring small females due either to selection against hybrids (reinforcement), or to egg predation by the larger benthic species. Chapter 3 explores the idea that sexual imprinting may facilitate assortative mating between benthic and limnetic sticklebacks. Sexual imprinting occurs when individuals imprint on the phenotype of their parents, and subsequently prefer mates that resemble their parents. The results suggested that sexual imprinting does not contribute to assortative mating between the sympatric species pairs, implying that genetics are more important than early learning for the formation of mate preferences. Chapter 4 focuses on differences in male breeding colour between benthics and limnetics. The results reveal that limnetic males have more intense red and blue coloration than benthic and solitary males. These differences in colour could be due to reinforcement, to differences in visual sensitivity of females, or to territorial interactions between males. Chapter 5 examines the evolution of female mating preferences under different scenarios of sex-linkage, when the male display trait is sexually antagonistic. Theoretical analysis suggests that sexually antagonistic traits on the X chromosome (males XY, females XX), females will evolve to prefer mates carrying alleles beneficial to their daughters. In contrast, with a Z-linked trait (males ZZ, females ZW), females more often evolve preferences for mates carrying alleles beneficial to their sons (e.g., flashy displays). This provides an explanation for why males in ZW species have more elaborate sexual displays than males in XY species.

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abstract: The current research seeks to examine whether individuals display or downplay intelligence in various mating contexts. I hypothesized that both men and women should display fluid intelligence when attempting to attract a potential long-term partner, and that only men should display fluid intelligence when attempting to attract a potential short-term partner. Contrary to predictions, I find that men perform worse at a fluid intelligence test when motivated to attract a long-term partner. With respect to crystallized intelligence, I predicted that both men and women should display crystallized intelligence when attempting to attract a potential long-term partner, but women should downplay crystallized intelligence when attempting to attract a potential short-term partner. However, there were no effects of mating contexts on displays of crystallized intelligence. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.A. Psychology 2013

Theoretical models of sexual selection assume that female mating preferences are fixed and variation found between individuals resulting solely from allelic variation at specific loci coding for sexual preferences. For the last decade, an increasing number of studies have demonstrated that individual phenotypic variation in preferences was common across a wide range of taxa and induced by the environmental context and the females’ condition. Further, developmental stages of life are crucial in the formation of behaviours in general and have proven to be determinant to learn sexual preferences in some species that dispense care for their young. However, very little studies have analysed how the early social and physical environments shape female mate choice in species that lack parental care. In this thesis, I used guppies (Poecilia reticulata), firstly, to investigate the influence of various aspects of the social environment provided by males during two ontogenetic phases. Secondly, I explored whether learned preferences in a foraging context during development could be transferred into a mating context. Considering the early social environment, I explored three distinctive features potentially displayed by males and that females might experience while growing. Females were reared with different values of a sexual trait not genetically preferred in the population (orange colour) and different values of a trait for which they had innate predisposition (total colour area). In both cases, females were exposed to the different treatments for the whole developmental period or for its later phase. My results indicated that females changed their sexual behaviours in response to both type of traits experienced, reversing sometimes their genetic preferences. Moreover, the timing of exposure seemed to be a key factor in the acquisition of preferences as females exposed only to the later part of development with different values of total colour didn’t rely anymore on colour patterns to discriminate among males. In a third body of experiment, I examined whether the overall phenotypic variance exhibited by males during whole development, independently of the values of a specific sexual cue, mediated female’s behaviours. In a context of high variance, female became choosier relatively to those experiencing less variance. As a response, males switched mating tactics and attempted more forced copulations. In its final part, my thesis searched for a link that might have arisen, owing to developmental conditions, between preferences using the same sensory modality in two behavioural contexts. Maturing females were given food that was associated to a certain colour and subsequently tested for both their coloured preference in a foraging and a sexual context. Although no foraging preference for the corresponding colour was detected, females that experienced a yellow stimulus preferred yellower males compared to females with other experiences. Taken together these results suggest that developmental conditions and especially the social environment play a pivotal role in the process of mate choice. Under some circumstances, learned mate preferences override genetically-based preferences highlighting the importance of non-genetic mechanisms. Accordingly, it is urgent to integrate in the study of sexual selection and reproductive isolation this dimension. In guppies, for instance, the effect of early social life might contribute to the maintenance of colour pattern polymorphism found in males.

Extremely polymorphic genes of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) play a significant role in the function of immune system by recognizing heterogeneous particles, mainly pathogenic origin. Previous research on various vertebrate species indicates that MHC influences individual body odour and mate choice preferences. Many individuals tend to prefer MHC dissimilar partner so that warrants them an offspring resistant against wider spectrum of infections. Research on MHC-related mate preferences in humans, however, is inconclusive to date. Several studies indicate that women not taking hormonal contraceptives prefer the smell of MHC dissimilar partners while other studies have not come to this conclusion. This can be caused by the absence of potentially influencing factors like the menstrual cycle phase. The aim of this study was to test MHC-similarity mate choice preferences in odour, facial and vocal modalities. In particular, we focused on a potential effect of hormonal contraception. Furtermore, we tested preferential shifts across the menstrual cycle by comparing women's preferences in the follicular and the luteal phase in pill and non-pill users. A group of 52 women in different phases of their menstrual cycle rated odour samples, photos and vocal recordings taken from 51 men. All...

<p>Previous research indicates that vocal and facial masculinity and femininity influence perceptions of attractiveness. Men generally perceive women with feminine traits as more attractive than less feminine women. This may be because women who possess more feminine traits are likely to be healthier and more fertile mates than are less feminine women. Masculine male traits also influence women’s perceptions of attractiveness. Although women do not always prefer masculine male traits, preferences for masculinity are observed under circumstances where women may gain the fitness benefits of heritable health and dominance. Masculine traits in men and feminine traits in women are further associated with the potential fitness risks of infidelity and reduced investment in mates. Here I address three previously unanswered questions concerning the influence of masculinity and femininity on social perceptions. First, how do male vocal and facial masculinity influence perceptions of attractiveness when these two traits are presented simultaneously? Second, does vocal masculinity influence perceptions of the potential fitness risks of infidelity and reduced relationship investment in mates? Third, do male masculinity and female femininity influence perceptions of potential same-sex rivals? In this dissertation I demonstrate that simultaneously presented male vocal and facial masculinity influence women’s perceptions of men’s attractiveness, that perceivers are somewhat aware of the potential fitness risks associated with preferring high quality mates, and that vocal and facial masculinity influence mate choice and intrasexual competition in similar ways. Overall, these studies demonstrate the pervasive influence of masculinity and femininity on mate-choice relevant social perceptions.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Research on mate preferences suggests that men value physical attractiveness and youthfulness most in potential partners, whereas women value status and resources most in a potential partner (Buss, 1989). These differences in mate preferences have implications for the value men and women place on these characteristics (e.g. attractiveness and resources) in potential mates. A man’s attractiveness and financial resources both contribute positively to his mate-value, (Sprecher, 1989; Townsend & Levy, 1990). A woman’s attractiveness also contributes to her mate-value (Sprecher, 1989; Townsend & Levy, 1990), but the value of her resources is less clear. I expected that men’s evaluation of a woman’s financial resources would be dependent on her level of attractiveness. I hypothesized that a woman’s financial resources would add to her mate-value when she was highly attractive, but detract from her mate-value when she was typically attractive. In Study 1, a woman of varying attractiveness (typical vs. high) approached men on campus and delivered a speech that conveyed her future income (low vs. high). Men’s reported desire to join her focus group was used as measure of their impressions of her mate-value. Study 2 directly assesses participant’s romantic interest in targets of varying income (low vs. high) and attractiveness (typical vs. high) using a controlled laboratory method where both men and women evaluated a profile of a potential romantic partner. The results of both studies supported my hypotheses. This research provides insight into the complicated nature of a woman’s financial resources as part of her overall mate-value. / Graduate / 2019-06-30

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