Στη διατριβή αυτή παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα έρευνας σχετικής με το σχεδιασμό, εφαρμογή και αξιολόγηση μιας διδακτικής ακολουθίας για την έννοια της ενέργειας η οποία απευθύνεται σε μαθη-τές/τριες της ε΄ τάξης του ελληνικού δημοτικού σχολείου. Η διδακτική αυτή ακολουθία βασίζεται στις αρχές της ‘καινοτομικής’ και ‘εποικοδομητικής’ προσέγγισης για τη διδασκαλία και μάθηση των φυσι-κών επιστημών και εξετάζονται αφ’ ενός τα επιστημολογικά χαρακτηριστικά του εννοιολογικού περιε-χομένου της ακολουθίας αυτής και αφ’ ετέρου αν μπορεί να οδηγήσει μαθητές/τριες αυτής της εκπαι-δευτικής βαθμίδας να εμφανίσουν γνωστική πρόοδο στο συγκεκριμένο θέμα. Σύμφωνα με τα αποτελέ-σματα της έρευνας, εκτιμάται ότι το ‘μοντέλο των ενεργειακών αλυσίδων’ αποτελεί ένα επιστημολογικά έγκυρο, συμβατό προς τις γνωστικές δυνατότητες των παιδιών και διδακτικά αποτελεσματικό διδακτικό μετασχηματισμό της επιστημονικής γνώσης σε σχολική γνώση. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, παρέχονται ενδείξεις σύμφωνα με τις οποίες οι μαθητές/τριες μετά το πέρας της σχετικής διδασκαλίας είναι δυνατόν να οι-κοδομήσουν τόσο στο ποιοτικό όσο και στο ποσοτικό επίπεδο ένα ενεργειακό μοντέλο με το οποίο (α) να περιγράφουν χρησιμοποιώντας την έννοια της ενέργειας, τόσο στο ποιοτικό όσο και στο ποσοτικό επίπεδο, τη λειτουργία απλών τεχνολογικών συστημάτων όπου εμπλέκονται μηχανικά, θερμικά και η-λεκτρικά φαινόμενα, (β) να μετρούν ποσότητες ενέργειας σε απλά τεχνολογικά συστήματα του σχολι-κού εργαστηρίου και (γ) να περιγράφουν, εξηγούν και προβλέπουν την ενεργειακή συμπεριφορά οικια-κών τεχνολογικών συστημάτων. / In this thesis, the results of a research concerning the planning, application and evaluation of a teaching sequence as far as the concept of energy is concerned, are featured. This teaching sequence is addressed to fifth grade pupils of Greek primary schools and it relies on the principles of ‘innovative’ and ‘construc-tive’ approach for the teaching and learning of science. On one hand, the epistemological features of the conceptual content of the sequence are being examined and on the other hand, it is argued whether pu-pils can be led to developing cognitive progress on this specific issue. According to the findings of this research, it is estimated that the ‘model of energy chains’ is scientifically valid and compatible to the cognitive capabilities of the pupils. It is an effective teaching model which transforms the scientific knowledge into school knowledge. More specifically, there are indications that the pupils, after completing this teaching course are capable of developing an energy model which is both qualitative and quantitative, so as to be able to: (a) describe the function of simple technological systems which include mechanical, thermal and electrical phenomena, by using the concept of energy both in a qualitative and quantitative level, (b) measure energy quantities in simple technological sys-tems of the school laboratory and (c) describe, explain and predict the energy behaviour of domestic technological systems.

O conceito de modelo mental é usado em áreas do conhecimento para estudar as representações sobre sistemas, eventos comportamentais e o conteúdo dessas representações. Este trabalho discute a influência destas representações no desempenho organizacional, os pressupostos envolvidos nos modelos mentais e identifica as diferentes dimensões e seus impactos sobre o desempenho das organizações. Dessa forma, a partir da análise dos pressupostos teóricos identificou-se que o desempenho das organizações principalmente pequenas e médias pode estar diretamente relacionado aos modelos mentais dos empreendedores. Sendo que estes modelos são compostos das seguintes dimensões: Conhecimento, Habilidades Emocionais, Mente Linear, Relacionamento, Missão e Estratégia, Criatividade e Inovação e Vocação. A metodologia utilizada foi primeiro, qualitativa exploratória através de entrevistas com análise de conteúdo para identificar variáveis e agregar na proposta teórica com questões abertas e, posteriormente quantitativa descritiva, a partir da proposição de questionamentos em pesquisa quantitativa para mensuração dos modelos mentais dos empreendedores. As dimensões Relacionamento, Criatividade e Inovação e Conhecimento foram as que mais impactaram o desempenho organizacional, sendo os resultados em 27,4% de significância explicando parte das dimensões dos modelos mentais propostos. Este estudo traz uma importante contribuição no sentido de compreender melhor a formação dos modelos mentais dos empreendedores e sua relação com o desempenho organizacional. / Submitted by Marcelo Teixeira (mvteixeira@ucs.br) on 2014-04-30T13:30:14Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Gustavo Mioranza.pdf: 3708311 bytes, checksum: cce9be62a363da43606cf04a0cc7c57e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-04-30T13:30:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Gustavo Mioranza.pdf: 3708311 bytes, checksum: cce9be62a363da43606cf04a0cc7c57e (MD5) / The concept of mental model is used in areas of knowledge to study the representations of systems, behavioral events and the content of these representations. This paper discusses the influence of these representations in organizational performance, the assumptions involved in the mental models and identifies the different dimensions and their impact on organizational performance. Thus, from the theoretical analysis it was found that the performance of mainly small and medium organizations can be directly related to mental models of entrepreneurs. Since these models are composed of the following dimensions: Knowledge, Skills, Emotional, Mind Linear Relationship, Mission and Strategy, Creativity and Innovation and Vocation. The methodology was first, exploratory qualitative through interviews with content analysis to identify variables and aggregate on the theoretical proposal with open questions and then quantitative descriptive proposition from the questions in quantitative research to measure the mental models of entrepreneurs. The dimensions of Relationship, Creativity and Innovation and Knowledge were the most impacted organizational performance and the results in 27.4% of explaining the significance of the proposed dimensions of mental models. This study makes an important contribution towards better understanding the formation of mental models of entrepreneurs and their relationship to organizational performance.

Nous nous proposons dans cette étude une exploration de la catégorisation du lexique verbal en nous focalisant sur la relation de troponymie peu connue et rarement reprise dans la littérature, proposée par Ch. Fellbaum (1990) en raison de sa capacité à structurer hiérarchiquement le lexique verbal. Les verbs of killing présentent un cas intéressant du fait de leur nombre et de leur multiplication dans le lexique, du fait également que contrairement à d’autres champs sémantiques, ils n’ont pas été étudiés systématiquement jusqu’alors. Du côté didactique, nous étudierons ces verbes en contexte : celui de l’apprentissage du français langue étrangère par des sujets adultes en Jordanie. Nous défendrons une position qui met en question la notion d’erreur lexicale chez la catégorie de locuteurs visée : considérant que les erreurs ne constituent que des « dialectes idiosyncrasiques » (selon S. Pit Corder, 1980), nous proposons une approche qui se définit en termes de stratégies communicationnelles en focalisant sur l’utilisation des verbes en relation de (co-)troponymie intra/inter domaines, qui résulte du caractère associatif et flexible du lexique verbal d’une langue. Pour ce faire, nous traiterons la production d’énoncés non conventionnels, autrement dit « erronés », dans lesquels les verbes entretiennent une relation de (co-)troponymie en termes de « degrés de vérité » (G. Kleiber 1990), en nous appuyant sur la maxime conversationnelle de qualité chez P. Grice (1975). Nous envisagerons ces problèmes dans une perspective translinguistique : ce travail de thèse fait appel de manière convergente à des notions issues de plusieurs disciplines linguistiques, lexique et sémantique, avec un arrière-plan cognitif et didactique / The purpose of this research is to explore the categorization of the verbal lexicon by focusing on the relations of troponymy, a notion which is not very known or referred to in the literature of lexicology, although it helps to structure the verbal lexicon hierarchically. Verbs of Killing present an interesting case due to their number and multiplication, but also because they are little or not yet studied. The researcher will study written performances of Jordanians studying French as a foreign language at the university level. The researcher defends a position which questions the term" lexical error" among the Jordanian learners of French. Since the language they speak is a particular type of "idiosyncratic dialects", we propose an approach that could be defined in terms of communication strategies, by focusing on the use of verbs having co-troponymy relations, intra and inter areas, resulting from the associative and flexible nature of the verbal lexicon. To do this, we handle the production of unconventional statements, which means "false", in which verbs have a relationship of (co)-troponymy in terms of "degrees of truth", according to the conversational maxim of quality in P. Grice 1975

O conceito de modelo mental é usado em áreas do conhecimento para estudar as representações sobre sistemas, eventos comportamentais e o conteúdo dessas representações. Este trabalho discute a influência destas representações no desempenho organizacional, os pressupostos envolvidos nos modelos mentais e identifica as diferentes dimensões e seus impactos sobre o desempenho das organizações. Dessa forma, a partir da análise dos pressupostos teóricos identificou-se que o desempenho das organizações principalmente pequenas e médias pode estar diretamente relacionado aos modelos mentais dos empreendedores. Sendo que estes modelos são compostos das seguintes dimensões: Conhecimento, Habilidades Emocionais, Mente Linear, Relacionamento, Missão e Estratégia, Criatividade e Inovação e Vocação. A metodologia utilizada foi primeiro, qualitativa exploratória através de entrevistas com análise de conteúdo para identificar variáveis e agregar na proposta teórica com questões abertas e, posteriormente quantitativa descritiva, a partir da proposição de questionamentos em pesquisa quantitativa para mensuração dos modelos mentais dos empreendedores. As dimensões Relacionamento, Criatividade e Inovação e Conhecimento foram as que mais impactaram o desempenho organizacional, sendo os resultados em 27,4% de significância explicando parte das dimensões dos modelos mentais propostos. Este estudo traz uma importante contribuição no sentido de compreender melhor a formação dos modelos mentais dos empreendedores e sua relação com o desempenho organizacional. / The concept of mental model is used in areas of knowledge to study the representations of systems, behavioral events and the content of these representations. This paper discusses the influence of these representations in organizational performance, the assumptions involved in the mental models and identifies the different dimensions and their impact on organizational performance. Thus, from the theoretical analysis it was found that the performance of mainly small and medium organizations can be directly related to mental models of entrepreneurs. Since these models are composed of the following dimensions: Knowledge, Skills, Emotional, Mind Linear Relationship, Mission and Strategy, Creativity and Innovation and Vocation. The methodology was first, exploratory qualitative through interviews with content analysis to identify variables and aggregate on the theoretical proposal with open questions and then quantitative descriptive proposition from the questions in quantitative research to measure the mental models of entrepreneurs. The dimensions of Relationship, Creativity and Innovation and Knowledge were the most impacted organizational performance and the results in 27.4% of explaining the significance of the proposed dimensions of mental models. This study makes an important contribution towards better understanding the formation of mental models of entrepreneurs and their relationship to organizational performance.

Στην παρούσα εργασία διερευνώνται οι νοητικές παραστάσεις μαθητών Στ΄ Δημοτικού σχετικά με το μηχανισμό της όρασης σε κατάσταση φυσικού, τεχνητού φωτισμού και νύχτας και ελέγχεται η συνέπεια των παραστάσεων συναρτήσει των τριών καταστάσεων φωτισμού αλλά και του τρόπου έκφρασης των απαντήσεων (προφορικός λόγος- τρισδιάστατος κόσμος, γραπτή απεικόνιση- δισδιάστατος κόσμος). Μελετάται επίσης η επίδραση που ενδεχομένως ασκεί η Παραδοσιακή διδασκαλία του μάθηματος της όρασης, στα σχήματα για την όραση που εμφανίζουν οι μαθητές. Για το σκοπό αυτό πραγματοποιήθηκαν σε πρώτη φάση οι ατομικές συνεντεύξεις του προ-τεστ, ακολούθησε η Παραδοσιακή διδασκαλία και σε τρίτη φάση πραγματοποιήθηκαν οι ατομικές συνεντεύξεις του μετά-τεστ. Βάσει αποτελεσμάτων, υιοθετούνται κυρίως τα σχήματα για την όραση που συναντώνται στη διεθνή βιβλιογραφία, με προτίμηση στο σχήματα "Λουτρό Φωτός" και "Φωτισμός του Αντικειμένου". Οι απαντήσεις τους εμφανίζουν ασυνέπεια και για τις τρεις καταστάσεις φωτισμού, στον τρισδιάστατο και δισδιάστατο κόσμο, ενώ προκύπτει ότι η Παραδοσιακή διδασκαλία παράγει ανομοιογενή αποτελέσματα και δε δημιουργεί συνθήκες γνωστικής προόδου. / This thesis studies the mental representations of 11 year old Greek students, concerning the mechanism of vision at natural and artificial lighting as well as at night. Additionally, we want to examine whether these representations are solid based on the three different states of lighting as well as on the way the answers are expressed (oral speech – three-dimensional world, sketches – two-dimensional world), and to investigate the possible effect of a Traditional course about vision, on pupils’ vision schemes. The study is combined of three phases: personal pre-test interviews with each student, Traditional course on vision mechanism and personal post-test interviews with the same subjects. The results show that 11 year old pupils employ the majority of the vision schemes that are seen on international bibliography, however the tend to use more the ones of “Sea of Light” and “Lighting an object”. The answers indicate that the schemes employed are not solid, neither throughout the different states of lighting, nor in the three-dimensional and two-dimensional world. Traditional teaching gives non-homogeneous results, thus does not contribute to mental progress.

No ano de 2007 foram analisadas representações mentais de alunos do 1º ano do ensino médio, na disciplina de biologia da Escola Estadual Parobé, Porto Alegre, RS. Foi avaliada a influência das figuras do livro didático (LD) no processo de aprendizagem de conceitos biológicos abstratos (bioquímica e biofísica celular), na construção do pensamento complexo e de modelos mentais. São discutidas quais as metodologias adequadas para trabalhar com representações do conhecimento do tipo pictóricas (do LD) e também a relevância do uso de desenhos como ferramenta de pesquisa de modelos mentais, no estudo da biologia. A pesquisa foi desenvolvida em quatro turmas, divididas em dois grupos, de acordo com a utilização ou não do LD. Os alunos produziram 487 desenhos em tarefas instrucionais; são proposições relacionadas aos conhecimentos prévios (pré-teste), ou aos conceitos desenvolvidos em aula (pós-teste). Nas turmas com o LD, o pós-teste também se relacionou com os conceitos das figuras do LD. Categorias indutivas foram produzidas para avaliar as representações complexas, e as representações e modelos mentais foram analisados de acordo com Greca e Moreira (1996, 2000), Moreira e Lagreca (1998) e Moreira (1994). Foi encontrada uma menor frequência de desenhos que indicavam a construção do pensamento complexo, e de modelos mentais no grupo de alunos com o LD. Estes alunos não desenvolveram uma aprendizagem significativa. / In 2007 mental representations of students in the 1st year of secondary education were analysed, in the subject of biology at the Parobé State School, in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul - RS. The influence of the figures in the didactic book (DB) was assessed, in the process of learning abstract biological concepts (biochemistry and cellular biophysics), in the construction of complex thought and of mental models. Discussions involved which are the adequate methodologies for working with knowledge representations of a pictorial kind (from a DB) as well as the relevance of the use of drawing as a research tool for mental models, in the study of biology. The research was carried out in four teams, divided into two groups, according to the use or not of the DB. Students produced 487 drawings in instructional tasks; they are propositions related to former knowledge (pre-test), or to the concepts developed in the classroom (post-test). In the teams with the DB, the post-test also related to the concepts of the figures in the DB. Inductive categories were produced to assess the complex representations, and the representations and mental models were analysed according to Greca and Moreira (1996 - 2000), Moreira and Lagreca (1998) and Moreira (1994). A lower frequency was found of drawings that indicated the construction of complex thought, and of mental models in the group of students with the DB. These students failed to develop significant learning.

No ano de 2007 foram analisadas representações mentais de alunos do 1º ano do ensino médio, na disciplina de biologia da Escola Estadual Parobé, Porto Alegre, RS. Foi avaliada a influência das figuras do livro didático (LD) no processo de aprendizagem de conceitos biológicos abstratos (bioquímica e biofísica celular), na construção do pensamento complexo e de modelos mentais. São discutidas quais as metodologias adequadas para trabalhar com representações do conhecimento do tipo pictóricas (do LD) e também a relevância do uso de desenhos como ferramenta de pesquisa de modelos mentais, no estudo da biologia. A pesquisa foi desenvolvida em quatro turmas, divididas em dois grupos, de acordo com a utilização ou não do LD. Os alunos produziram 487 desenhos em tarefas instrucionais; são proposições relacionadas aos conhecimentos prévios (pré-teste), ou aos conceitos desenvolvidos em aula (pós-teste). Nas turmas com o LD, o pós-teste também se relacionou com os conceitos das figuras do LD. Categorias indutivas foram produzidas para avaliar as representações complexas, e as representações e modelos mentais foram analisados de acordo com Greca e Moreira (1996, 2000), Moreira e Lagreca (1998) e Moreira (1994). Foi encontrada uma menor frequência de desenhos que indicavam a construção do pensamento complexo, e de modelos mentais no grupo de alunos com o LD. Estes alunos não desenvolveram uma aprendizagem significativa. / In 2007 mental representations of students in the 1st year of secondary education were analysed, in the subject of biology at the Parobé State School, in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul - RS. The influence of the figures in the didactic book (DB) was assessed, in the process of learning abstract biological concepts (biochemistry and cellular biophysics), in the construction of complex thought and of mental models. Discussions involved which are the adequate methodologies for working with knowledge representations of a pictorial kind (from a DB) as well as the relevance of the use of drawing as a research tool for mental models, in the study of biology. The research was carried out in four teams, divided into two groups, according to the use or not of the DB. Students produced 487 drawings in instructional tasks; they are propositions related to former knowledge (pre-test), or to the concepts developed in the classroom (post-test). In the teams with the DB, the post-test also related to the concepts of the figures in the DB. Inductive categories were produced to assess the complex representations, and the representations and mental models were analysed according to Greca and Moreira (1996 - 2000), Moreira and Lagreca (1998) and Moreira (1994). A lower frequency was found of drawings that indicated the construction of complex thought, and of mental models in the group of students with the DB. These students failed to develop significant learning.

No ano de 2007 foram analisadas representações mentais de alunos do 1º ano do ensino médio, na disciplina de biologia da Escola Estadual Parobé, Porto Alegre, RS. Foi avaliada a influência das figuras do livro didático (LD) no processo de aprendizagem de conceitos biológicos abstratos (bioquímica e biofísica celular), na construção do pensamento complexo e de modelos mentais. São discutidas quais as metodologias adequadas para trabalhar com representações do conhecimento do tipo pictóricas (do LD) e também a relevância do uso de desenhos como ferramenta de pesquisa de modelos mentais, no estudo da biologia. A pesquisa foi desenvolvida em quatro turmas, divididas em dois grupos, de acordo com a utilização ou não do LD. Os alunos produziram 487 desenhos em tarefas instrucionais; são proposições relacionadas aos conhecimentos prévios (pré-teste), ou aos conceitos desenvolvidos em aula (pós-teste). Nas turmas com o LD, o pós-teste também se relacionou com os conceitos das figuras do LD. Categorias indutivas foram produzidas para avaliar as representações complexas, e as representações e modelos mentais foram analisados de acordo com Greca e Moreira (1996, 2000), Moreira e Lagreca (1998) e Moreira (1994). Foi encontrada uma menor frequência de desenhos que indicavam a construção do pensamento complexo, e de modelos mentais no grupo de alunos com o LD. Estes alunos não desenvolveram uma aprendizagem significativa. / In 2007 mental representations of students in the 1st year of secondary education were analysed, in the subject of biology at the Parobé State School, in Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul - RS. The influence of the figures in the didactic book (DB) was assessed, in the process of learning abstract biological concepts (biochemistry and cellular biophysics), in the construction of complex thought and of mental models. Discussions involved which are the adequate methodologies for working with knowledge representations of a pictorial kind (from a DB) as well as the relevance of the use of drawing as a research tool for mental models, in the study of biology. The research was carried out in four teams, divided into two groups, according to the use or not of the DB. Students produced 487 drawings in instructional tasks; they are propositions related to former knowledge (pre-test), or to the concepts developed in the classroom (post-test). In the teams with the DB, the post-test also related to the concepts of the figures in the DB. Inductive categories were produced to assess the complex representations, and the representations and mental models were analysed according to Greca and Moreira (1996 - 2000), Moreira and Lagreca (1998) and Moreira (1994). A lower frequency was found of drawings that indicated the construction of complex thought, and of mental models in the group of students with the DB. These students failed to develop significant learning.

Les postures corporelles signalant domination ou soumission servent une fonction de communication chez les humains et d’autres animaux. La question de savoir si l'adoption de telles "postures de pouvoir" influence la perception et le comportement de l'agent fait actuellement l'objet d'un débat. Le travail réalisé pendant cette thèse consistait à explorer les effets de ces postures sur des comportements étroitement liés à leur fonction primaire, à savoir la communication sociale, en se focalisant sur les réponses aux visages, signaux sociaux particulièrement saillants. Dans une série d'expériences, j'ai utilisé des méthodes de corrélation inverse pour visualiser les représentations mentales de traits préférés du visage. Les représentations mentales des visages préférés implicitement et explicitement évoquaient une impression affiliative et légèrement dominante, mais ne révélaient aucun effet reproductible des postures. Deux autres expériences distinctes ont étudié les effets de la posture sur la perception d’expressions faciales menaçantes et sur les comportements d'approche ou d'évitement en réponse à ces signaux. Bien que les postures n'aient pas d’influence sur la reconnaissance explicite d’expressions faciales menaçantes, elles ont un impact sur les décisions d'approcher ou d'éviter des signaux de menace. Plus précisément, l'adoption d'une posture de soumission augmentait la tendance à éviter les personnes exprimant la colère. Enfin, une tentative de réplication des effets des postures sur les niveaux de testostérone et de cortisol a démontré que même l'adoption répétée d'une posture de pouvoir en contexte social ne provoque pas de changements hormonaux. Dans l'ensemble, ces résultats suggèrent que notre posture corporelle n’influence pas nos représentations mentales et notre perception des autres individus, mais pourrait influencer nos actions en réponse aux signaux sociaux. / Expansive and constrictive body postures serve a primary communicative function in humans and other animals by signalling power and dominance. Whether adopting such “power postures” influences the agent’s own perception and behaviour is currently a subject of debate. In this PhD thesis, I explored effects of adopting power postures on behaviours closely related to the postures’ primary function of social signalling by focusing on responses to faces as particularly salient social signals. In a series of experiments, I utilized reverse correlation methods to visualize mental representations of preferred facial traits. Mental representations of implicitly as well as explicitly preferred faces evoked an affiliative and slightly dominant impression, but revealed no replicable effects of power postures. Two further separate experiments investigated posture effects on the perception of threatening facial expressions, and approach vs. avoidance actions in response to such social signals. While postures did not influence explicit recognition of threatening facial expressions, they affected approach and avoidance actions in response to them. Specifically, adopting a constrictive posture increased the tendency to avoid individuals expressing anger. Finally, an attempt to replicate posture effects on levels of testosterone and cortisol demonstrated that even repeatedly adopting a power posture in a social context does not elicit hormonal changes. Altogether, these findings suggest that our body posture does not influence our mental representations and perception of other people’s faces per se, but could influence our actions in response to social signals.

The last decades have witnessed the resurgence of research on linguistic relativity, which provides empirical evidence of possible language effects on thought across various perceptual domains. This study investigated the linguistic relativity hypothesis in the abstract domain of time by looking at how L1 Chinese - L2 English bilinguals conceptualize time in two-dimensional space. English primarily relies on horizontal spatial items to talk about time (e.g., back to youth); in addition to horizontal spatial metaphors (e.g., ‘front year’), Chinese speakers also commonly use vertical metaphors to describe time (e.g., ‘up week’). If language has an effect on thought, then spatial-temporal metaphors should shape people’s temporal cognition. In this study, we examined whether spatial-temporal metaphors impact online processing of time and long-term habitual thinking about time. Experiment 1 showed that bilinguals could automatically access the timeline which corresponded to the immediate linguistic context. In Experiment 2, a majority of bilinguals demonstrated salient vertical bias for temporal reasoning, whereas a small number of participants relied on the horizontal axis to represent time. The dominant thinking patterns for time documented here (65% prefer a vertical representation of time; 35% horizontal) run counter to the fact that horizontal metaphors are twice as common in Chinese as vertical metaphors. Further, it was found that bilinguals who used English more frequently were more likely to have a less vertical bias, which suggested a role of L2 experience in conceptual representations. Taken together, the evidence in this study showed that spatial-temporal metaphors have both short-term and long-term effects on mental representations of time, but also that space-time mappings do not depend solely on linguistic factors.