Changes in income and representation in managerial occupations is explored separately for women and men among the United States' eight largest race/ethnic minority groups for each decennial census of 1960, 1970, 1980 and 1990 to determine how much change has occurred between 1960 and 1990 in race and ethnic inequality, and in gender inequality within each race/ethnic group. Insights from gender theory are applied to minority group inequality and insights from minority group theory are applied to gender inequality with some degree of success. Economic change is uneven among the groups, with the largest specific change being the movement of women into managerial jobs. A clear pattern also emerged indicating that the higher the average representation of a minority group in managerial jobs, the greater the gap between women and men. The income of all persons with income, however, did not exhibit such a clear pattern across the different groups.

The shift from an ethnocentric, monocultural society to a more inclusive and democratic society should be accompanied by a national policy providing equal access to resources in a proactive, affirmative manner. This can be achieved in one of the two ways, either through equal employment opportunity or Affirmative Action. Affirmative Action is a specific intervention directed toward ensuring that employment opportunities are created by actively correcting imbalances caused by past discrimination and achieving employment targets. Equal employment opportunity implies an absence of discrimination, whereas Affirmative Action denotes compensatory discrimination in favour of disadvantaged groups.<br /> <br /> Affirmative Action is a supplement to, rather than equivalent to equal employment opportunities in that equality cannot be a genuine option where the effects of previous discriminatory practices have not been redressed. In an equal opportunities system, not all persons have the same chance of achieving the desired goal, but all are provided with equal means to achieve it. The unequal outcome of such a system is caused by the unequal skills for talents of the past discrimination, especially in terms of education and experience. All the Directors of Tygerberg Administration who responded to the questionnaires supported this and all of them agreed that training is necessary for all employees, especially the previously discriminated groups. The primary objective of Affirmative Action can therefore said to be the adequate advancement of disadvantaged groups for the purpose of securing equal rights, freedom and opportunities.<br /> <br /> Equal employment opportunity is seen as a passive agreement on the part of the employer not to discriminate against any particular group. Employers adhering to the principle of equal employment opportunity evaluates candidates for employment according to performance criteria which relates directly to the requirements of a particular position. Affirmative Action seeks to go beyond equal employment opportunity in that it recognises that, when members of disadvantaged groups constitute only a small percentage of the labour pool, passively providing equality of opportunity will not suffice in overcoming the effects of previous discriminatory employment practices. Affirmative Action employers are therefore given the mandate to identify and remove the barriers to the employment of those under-represented in the workplace. Merely removing the present obstacles to equality does not necessarily ensure equality between groups since the effects of previous discrimination need to be actively redressed.<br /> It can be noted that equal employment and Affirmative Action programmes should not be equated with each other as they imply different approaches to overcoming the effects of previous discrimination. Affirmative Action is said to be a supplement to, rather than the equivalent of equal employment opportunity, in that it is required to eliminate the barriers to real equality in the workplace. In this regard, it is essential to point out that Affirmative Action programmes are a means to an end, namely equal employment opportunity, and should not continue after this end has been achieved. Due to the similarity between the two terms, Affirmative Action and equal employment opportunity are often equated with one another when, in essence, they have different meanings.<br /> <br /> From the information gathered for this research it was clear that not many Blacks were employed in management and supervisory positions of the City of Tygerberg. The research revealed that despite adopting the Agreement on Affirmative Action and equal employment practice of the National Labour Relations Forum for Local Government as its policy framework, the Tygerberg Administration had not succeeded in meeting most of its obligations in terms of the above mentioned policy framework. This is largely ascribed to problems experienced with the implementation of equal employment and Affirmative Action programmes within the local authority. The methods of communicating these programmes to especially its lower category of disadvantaged employees to participate in training opportunities to improve their working skills, were not capitalised on. There was an unequal distribution of skills due to the effects of past discrimination, especially in terms of education. Active steps therefore need to be taken to ensure that the intentions of the local authority with repect to equal employment and Affirmative Action are implemented efficiently and effectively.

Thesis (MPhil)--University of Stellenbosch, 2000. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Before 1994, the year in which South Africa conducted its first democratic elections, newspapers did little to reflect the demographics of its country and more specifically its regions. This assignment delves into the progress made regarding transformation with specific reference to senior staffing at the Cape Argus, Cape Times and Die Burger since 1994. A comparison is drawn between what went before and after 1994 in the staffing structures of the newspapers mentioned. In terms of content the assignment lists and studies a number of issues regarding transformation as per the topic. Histories of the above-mentioned newspapers are recorded. The South African Human Rights Commission's views on transformation in the media are mentioned as well. The views of these newspapers and those of Government are also shared. Changes have been made, although this has been at a pedestrian pace for a number of reasons. These changes need to be tracked through for more empirical work than has been possible in this assignment. These newspapers have set themselves targets and they are optimistic that in the near future many more changes would be made. The prospect for future research of this topic is far from being saturated. The three media houses discussed are committed to transformation. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Voor 1994, die jaar waarin Suid-Afrika se eerste demokratiese verkiesing gehou is, het koerante baie min gedoen om die demografie van die land en omliggende streke te weerspieël. Hierdie werkstuk ondersoek die vordering in transformasie wat ná 1994 gemaak is, met spesifieke verwysing na senior personeelaanstellings by die Cape Argus, Cape Times en Die Burger. 'n Vergelyking tussen personeelstrukture van hierdie koerante voor en ná 1994 word getref. 'n Aantal aspekte ten opsigte van transformasie word bestudeer en die geskiedenis van bogenoemde koerante word opgeteken. Die Suid-Afrikaanse Menseregtekommissie se siening oor transformasie in die media word bespreek, asook die siening van hierdie koerante en dié van die regering. Veranderings, hoewel teen 'n stadige tempo, is vir 'n aantal redes aangebring. Hierdie koerante het vir hulself doelwitte gestel, en hulle is optimisties dat heelwat meer veranderinge in die nabye toekoms aangebring sal word. Transformasie blyk 'n prioriteit by elk van die genoemde koerante te wees. Die studie het nie die onderwerp uitgeput nie en verdere navorsing kan gedoen word.

The main purpose of this qualitative research study was to investigate strategies to improve the representation of black females in senior levels within the South African banking industry. This was done through investigating the challenges that black women face in their career advancement within the banking industry and the strategies which currently exist and can be implemented to improve this representation. In as much as the research is aimed at seeking strategies to improve black women representation in senior positions, it also seeks to understand the barriers experienced by black women in different levels within the industry as these levels serve as a pipeline for senior management. This problem was addressed through answering the research objectives. The research objectives were achieved through conducting a literature review to explore the existing research topic and conducting an empirical study. Empirical evidence was obtained through conducting semi-structured interviews with seven black women who are currently working in the banking sector. Semi-structured interviews were used due to the target population being specific to black women as well as the need to acquire in-depth knowledge from black women of their experiences in climbing the corporate ladder in the sector. The key findings of the research found that the participant’s perception was that black women were at the bottom, that black women were displaying behaviours that were inhibiting their progress to senior positions. The study also found that black women struggled to advance to senior positions due to different challenges that they encountered. The study is finalised by the participants providing recommendations in terms of how the representation of black women could be improved.

MPM / Oliver Tambo Institute of Governance and Policy Studies

The daunting challenge that faces South African business is to redress the inequalities of past discrimination and to develop to its maximum the potential of every team member while remaining competitive. Some of the key challenges include creating a supportive and attractive work environment that's inclusive of diversity, staff retention and an organisational culture that will leverage diversity. The case study organisation faced similar challenges. In order to understand the dynamics a diversity workshop was designed and consulted from a systems psychodynamic paradigm. The primary task of the Diversity Workshop was to provide opportunities for members to study and learn about intrapersonal, interpersonal and inter group relationships in relation to diversity behaviour in the workplace. 50 participants attended the workshop and 22 participants completed the questionnaire. The content was analysed and themes from a psychodynamic stance identified. The overall objective of the workshop was met as it made unconscious behaviour visible, allowed participants to reflect, facilitated dialogue and enabled transfer of learning to the workplace. This approach allowed groups to move from basic assumptions to task oriented behaviour. / Industrial and Organisational Psychology / M. Com. (Industrial Psychology)

The National Association of Social Workers and the Council on Social Work Education are concerned with the eradication of racism within the social work profession and the nation at large. Graduate schools throughout the country are presently attempting to come to grips with this elusive and pervasive problem. The School of Social Work at Portland State University is among these schools. In early 1972, the Portland State University School of Social Work formalized and adopted a specific policy regarding recruitment, education, and issues concerning non-white students and communities. In doing so, this school became the first School of Social Work in the Northwest, perhaps in the nation, to have a specific, examinable policy covering its position of graduate education for non-whites. However, the genesis of this policy had extended back to 1971 when the need for a specific, consistent policy regarding non-whites and the School was being realized. It was during the subsequent task of developing this policy that the necessity for research in this area was keenly felt. The School of Social Work draws the majority of its students from the State of Oregon, specifically from the metropolitan area in and around Portland. The majority of its graduates choose to remain in Oregon to work. However, it was learned that little or no systematic information was available concerning the needs and programs of the practice community for non-white social service personnel. Since the School is committed both to education and to the service of the community, it became obvious that descriptive and concrete data were necessary. This research practicum is an attempt to examine this heretofore unexplored area in the State of Oregon.

South Africa comes from an apartheid local government system that was structured to divide the citizens socially, economically, spatially and racially to ensure that only a small minority of South Africans benefited from the development and the resources of this country. Since 1994 government departments have undergone a number of transformation processes. The Employment Equity Act 55 of 1998 and affirmative action became instrumental in ensuring racial and gender representation within the local government structures. This study investigates the perceptions of racism, nepotism, fraud and other related problems which were perceived as a hindrance towards the effective implementation of affirmative action. The main findings of the study confirm that the implementation of affirmative action in municipalities is not effective due to lack of commitment from top management. It is anticipated that the implementation of Local Government Systems Amendment Act 7 of 2011, will enforce service delivery within municipalities. / Public Administration & Management / M. Tech. (Public Management)

Thesis (MPA (School of Public Management and Planning))--Stellenbosch University, 2008. / South Africa comes from an apartheid local government system that was structured to divide citizens socially, economically, spatially, and racially to ensure that only a small minority of South Africans benefited from development. However since 1994 with the democratisation of our country, local government departments have undergone a number of transformation processes, which saw the country steadily moving away from the apartheid local government system. Representation is one of the main foundations of a non-racist, non-sexist and democratic society and achieving it is regarded as a necessary precondition to legitimise the public service to drive it towards equitable service delivery. The most prominent response to achieve a representative public service was the Employment Equity Act (No 55 of 1998), which became operational on 9 August 1999. Essentially the Act calls for a complete prohibition of unfair discrimination against all employees and requires that all designated employers undertake affirmative action measures to ensure that suitably qualified people from designated groups have equal employment opportunities. There are therefore many arguments in favour of AA and many against it, making it a formidable and complex task, especially in the South African context. However it is important to understand the reason for enactment of employment equity legislation in the workplace in terms of South Africa‟s history of discrimination and the resultant inequalities. The manner in which employment equity and affirmative action is introduced and handled in the organization can have a great influence on the perception and attitude of staff towards the topic. It therefore becomes imperative to grasp the understanding of staff on employment equity and related issues to measure if any progress was made and how to possibly improve on present practices in the organisation. Against this background this study investigated the perception and attitude of the City of Cape Town Health staff towards employment equity. The requirements of the EEA were discussed and used as the benchmark for success of implementation. The study included the review of relevant secondary sources of information but primary data was also obtained through the use of questionnaires comprising of semi structured questions to achieve this objective. The main findings from the secondary data revealed that AA is still necessary as a corrective tool, because our playing fields are far from leveled, however the reality is we have a great shortage of skills that is impacting on our global competitiveness which calls for a shift in thinking regarding the government‟s present approach. 4 In addition the research also identified as a designated employer, the City of Cape Town has fulfilled the legislative requirements, in that all its policies are consistent with the requirements of the EEA. The main findings of the primary data obtained from the questionnaires recognized that senior management of the City Health directorate is committed to EE, but falls short of an effective communication plan regarding the relevant issues of EE, there is little focus on disabled appointments and many employees indicated other criteria outside 'suitably qualified' (as defined in the EEA) plays a large role in the promotion of employees.

Thesis (MPA)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / South Africa has committed itself to social transformation: institutional transformation through the removal of racism and sexism in all legislation, business, employment practices, service delivery and interpersonal relationships: in all of society; and in all spheres of government. Diversity in the South African context is dynamic and complicated as a result of the -apartheid era. There are many political, social and economic factors that are major obstacles to building healthy intercultural relations in South Africa. In today’s corporate workplace, diversity management is what is mostly used to bring about transformation. The South African Constitution enacted in 1996 states that South Africa belongs to all who live in it, being united in our diversity. We are now almost two decades into our democracy and, despite progress being made to ensure redress of historical imbalances in South Africa; diversity management is not advancing at the pace that had initially been envisaged. It is therefore evident that, despite enabling legislation to promote diversity management, translating such into practice is proving to be quite a daunting challenge. It has been noted that organisations are still grappling with issues of diversity. Working with people who have different values, beliefs, attitudes, perceptions, customs and languages from your own can result in costly miscommunication, misinterpretation, misunderstanding and misperception. This subject of diversity management has been explored exhaustively by various authors over time and various explanations for lack of progress have been offered. Over the years, the Western Cape Department of Community Safety (DCS) has witnessed an in increase in its organisational workforce. Employees from different backgrounds were recruited to achieve representivity in the workplace. It even went to the extent of appointing females in fields of employment which were previously predominantly staffed by males. The thesis assessed the DCS approach to diversity management by: - Firstly, obtaining an understanding of how diversity is managed in the department; - Secondly exploring the concept of diversity management in various contexts; - Thirdly exploring the legislative context for diversity management in the South African Public Service; and - Determining the DCSs approach to diversity management by using the current situation in the DCS as a case study A qualitative case study research design with structured interviews and survey questionnaires was used to conduct the study. This was used to draw inferences between practice and theory. The literature review on what diversity management is has been be grouped into dimensions to influence managers to formulate a model on how to embrace and value diversity in the workplace. The research findings clearly indicate that the Department of Community Safety still has much to do in terms of implementing the prescribed legislation on diversity. It is expected that the study will assist the department in its endeavour to achieve a greater level of compliance. In an organisation, the desired results of the “value all differences” approach are synergy and pluralism combined with an appreciation of and contribution towards goals and objectives. Recommendations are proposed in relation to what is key to diversity management as well as identifying determining factors of successful management. The main aim is the implementation of the diversity management model that comprises several steps.