This dissertation explores the transmission of Western medicine for women in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century China. It starts from the fundamental presupposition that one cannot reach a proper understanding of the medical knowledge available at the time without investigating the practical experience of doctors, medical students, and their female patients. Focusing on the practice of Western and Chinese missionary practitioners (male and female), including the hospital buildings they erected, the texts they translated, the ways they manipulated their senses in diagnosis and treatment, and the medical appliances they employed for surgery and delivery, I reconstruct these people’s daily-life experiences, while reassessing the broad issues of professionalization and gender, colonial medicine, translation, knowledge making, and interactions between the human body and inanimate materials in a cross-cultural context. This dissertation first highlights daily life’s contributions to the history of professionalization by examining the on-the-ground, material circumstances of women doctors’ work at the Hackett Medical Complex in the southeast treaty-port city of Canton (Guangzhou). The physical conditions of the missionary hospital and its built environment embodied the multi-layered process through which the concrete elements of Western medicine were circulated, applied, and localized in China’s pluralistic medical landscape. Foregrounding Western missionary physicians and their Chinese students as practitioners who were practicing and learning medicine in a specific medical setting, I argue that the professionalization of medicine for women was not defined through a set of abstract theoretical criteria but was rather embedded in concrete daily practice, in observing, diagnosing, and treating patients. Drawing evidence from translated medical treatises and manuals, I demonstrate in the second part of the dissertation (Chapter Two) how craft-based, material-centered medical knowledge from the West was disseminated in China via the vehicle of words. Missionary doctors integrated the topic of manual skills into their medical discourse and, hence, could monopolize the realm of pragmatic knowledge generated exclusively from the hospital setting. Here, I underline the role that text played in mobilizing female healing techniques. By doing so, I show how Western-trained physician-translators derived their authority not only as practitioners of women’s reproductive health but also as interpreters of female bodies. Whereas published words served as a powerful vehicle in spreading speculative ideas, it was not the only channel through which Western medical knowledge was transmitted and acquired. Rather, an account of doctor–patient encounters at the Hackett Medical Complex clarifies the non-discursive modes of knowledge exchange that prioritized the interactions of skills, body, and instruments in translating technical know-how. As I show in this dissertation’s third part (Chapters Three and Four), missionaries created their new norms of medical practice by placing touching and handling at the center of diagnostic practice. Moreover, the apprenticeship approach and potential linguistic barrier between the missionary teachers and their Chinese students meant that a large body of knowledge passed from one to the other more by observation and imitation than by the study of books. Whereas most scholars in this field have characterized the Chinese encounter with Western science as a translation practice relying on texts, I broaden this assessment by exploring a gendered mode of knowing that emphasizes the role of clinical practice and sensory experience. My fundamental aim in this dissertation is to foreground knowledge transmission and the nature of the women doctors’ work at the level of practice, which was based mostly on their experiences and bodily labor. By focusing this history of profession-in-the-making in the multifarious exchanges between China and the West, I demonstrate how the “expertise” in women’s medicine was generated by doing—that is, by the technical dimension of the social practice of medicine.

This dissertation avers that the transpacific circulation of narrative artefacts - travel accounts, letters, relaciones, and illustrated codices- enabled the emergence of a new global history that departs from the ancient tradition of universal history. In the late 16th and early 17th centuries, Iberian missionaries and historians began to incorporate into their histories and chronicles of the Indies sources and material dealing with China, Japan and other regions of the Far East. The dissertation argues that this transpacific interaction enabled historians to produce synchronic modes of writing that were emancipated from ancient narrative models. To develop this argument, the dissertation examines how historians and missionaries gradually separated the reading of ancient books from their own modern experience of narrating the Far East. By incorporating sources and material produced mainly in Macau and Manila, scholars not only imported new knowledge related to East and Southeast Asia into the Iberian and European world, but they also transformed the genre of general and universal histories of the Indies developed during the 16th century in the New World. Instead of considering the gradual integration of America with Eurasia and Africa to be the main and only fact that defined the emergence of a new global history, this dissertation argues that it was the discovery of the Far East from the West Indies that enabled historians to create forms of writing global histories that departed from the tradition of universal history. The dissertation puts into dialogue coexisting models and methods of composing global histories that emerged in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. To do so, I examine the emergence of narratives that integrated the Far East into historical genres developed in the West Indies during the 16th century. In this part, I explore the writings of scholars who wrote about the Far East by projecting a perspective that emerged from their production developed in the West Indies: Martín de Rada (1533-78), Francisco Hernández (1517-1587), Juan González de Mendoza (1540-1617), José de Acosta (1540-1600), the authors of the Boxer codex (ca. 1590), Adriano de las Cortes (1577-1629), and Antonio de León Pinelo (1595-1660). Furthermore, the dissertation analyzes the emergence of global modes of writing by focusing on the writings of Jesuits who arrived in the Far East from the oriental Portuguese route, such as Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), Diego de Pantoja (1571-1618), and Nicolas Trigault (1577-1628). These correlated productions incorporated the Far East into the narratives of the Iberian world by redefining categories associated with the Orient and reformulating methods of historical writing. By building a corpus of sources that refer to the arrival of Iberians to the Far East, this dissertation advances the thesis that the creation of systems of exchange and the transpacific circulation of relaciones, letters, and codices made possible and shaped new forms of composing global histories in the early modern Iberian world.

Altruism is an imperative for nursing practice and education, but no research has explored its meaning using a historical method. This study aimed to explicate the meaning of altruism through the study of four Southern Baptist nurse missionaries. Ruth Kersey, Amanda Tinkle, Hazel Moon, and Helen Masters served in Nigeria between 1920 and 1981. Their correspondence archives were used as primary sources of data and analyzed for examples of altruism. These women founded orphanages and leprosy treatment programs, and managed clinics and hospitals run by the Southern Baptist Church in Nigeria. Additional interconnected variables of race, gender, and religion were also found to influence their work. The findings of this study supported altruism as a sacrificial behavior motivated by benefiting others. Nursing’s presence in global health, its expansion in leadership, and its future identity are supported by the study of these four nurses. Further research into the work of nurse missionaries in nursing’s past is recommended to increase the understanding of missionary work and altruism.

何心平. / 論文(哲學博士)--香港中文大學, 2007. / 參考文獻(p. 200-207). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstracts in Chinese and English. / Lun wen (zhe xue bo shi)--Xianggang Zhong wen da xue, 2007. / Can kao wen xian (p. 200-207). / He Xinping.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:31:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2012-03-19Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:01:35Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 silva_jo_dr_mar.pdf: 2640425 bytes, checksum: 5f68b3caa6aa83227510150be25a0770 (MD5) / As narrativas missionárias católicas na África apresentam a ações religiosas correspondendo a um heroísmo realizado na alteridade da África Central. Nosso objetivo foi investigar o expansionismo católico realizado pelos Missionários da África, no Vicariato do Niassa, na vasta região dominada pelos Babemba, no norte da Rhodésia, atual Zâmbia. O conjunto de postos missionários espalhados pelo norte da Rhodésia até toda a extensão do Niassalândia compunha esse território eclesiástico. Metodologicamente, utilizamos a interface entre a Antropologia e a História para conduzir nossa análise interpretativa das narrativas desse grupo: diários, documentos oficiais e atlas. Para tanto, escolhemos como nossos nativos os membros desse instituto católico, fundado em 1868, na Argélia, pelo Cardeal francês Charles Lavigerie, e sendo estipulado como recorte histórico o período de 1891, que marca a chegada deles em Mambwe, até 1937, pela instalação do território eclesiástico do Vicariato Apostólico de Luangwa pela Propaganda Fide. Para compreender as ações missionárias, investigamos de que forma o habitus católico se estruturou para definir fronteiras eclesiásticas na forma de etnicidade entre outros grupos católicos e, também, com o mundo laico. Os Missionários da África se diferenciaram dos outros institutos pela produção de sinais diacríticos para manter sua identidade coletiva, operando em conformidade com o funcionamento de circunscrições, abaixo e em torno do papado. Concluímos que o expansionismo católico levou para a Rhodésia atores missionários, padres e irmãos, dispostos a se sacrificar e a se adaptar diante das ações refratárias do interesse colonial, das resistências dos chefes nativos contra o domínio... / Catholic missionary narratives introduce religious actions as a heroism accomplished in the alterity of Central Africa. Our aim was to investigate the Catholic expansion, realized by the Missionaries of Africa, in Nyassa Vicariate, in the extensive territory dominated by Babemba, in Northern Rhodesia, nowadays Zambia. The aggregation of mission stations sprinkled over Northern Rhodesia, as far as to the whole extension of Nyassaland, composed such ecclesiastical territory. Methodologically, we have make used of Anthropology and History interface to conduct our analytical interpretation of missionary narratives: diaries, official documents and atlas. For that reason, we have chosen as our natives the members of that Catholic institute, founded in 1868, by the French Cardinal Charles Lavigerie, in Algeria. We set up the period of investigation the moment they left the Shiré site and reached Mambwe, in 1891, until 1937, when the erection Apostolic Vicariate of Luangwa granted by Propaganda Fide. To understand such bureaucratically products, we investigate how Catholic habitus has structured itself to define its ecclesiastical borders in terms of ethnicity, competing prestige amongst other Catholic groups and, also, with laity domination. Missionaries of Africa differed from other institutes by producing diacritical signs to sustain its collective identity, operating due to prescriptive circumscriptions, bellow and around the papacy. We concluded that Catholic expansion brought to Rhodesia missionary actors, priests and brother, willing to sacrifice their lives and be adapted to refractory actions of colonial plans, chiefdoms’ resistances against foreigner domain and tensions inner the ecclesiastical borders. Therefore... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

The Commission on Religion in Appalachia (CORA) was a mission organization founded in 1965 to bring economic and religious uplift to Appalachia. CORA focused on rural areas and relied on prevalent stereotypes to define the region as homogenous and backward, and its definition permeated its mission work. CORA members were influenced by 1931 and 1958 religious surveys that largely reinforced established Appalachian stereotypes of poverty and isolation. However, Appalachia's urban areas offered a broader definition and understanding of the region. By 1900 there were examples of Jewish communities in Appalachian urban areas that persisted throughout the twentieth century. Urban areas also experienced trends that were seen throughout the south and the rest of the United States. CORA was a mission organization that was founded on an Appalachian identity highlighted by stereotypes of rural homogeneity and poverty, and they excluded urban areas from their definition.

This dissertation examines U.S. views of Mexico from the end of the U.S.-Mexico War in 1848, to the end of the first phase of the Mexican Revolution in May 1911. During this period numerous Americans saw Mexico as a laboratory to test their ability to transform a country seemingly in need of guidance. Americans, however, struggled to define the role of the United States: whether it was solely to be a model for other nations to follow, or whether Americans should be actively involved in this process. In the years after the U.S. Civil War, a diverse group of Americans, especially missionaries, investors, and working-class activists, saw Mexico as a nation in need of change and sought to affect its transformation through the means of informal imperialism. Yet they vigorously disagreed whether this transformation should occur in religious, political, economic or social terms. Despite these differences, they all believed that Mexico could be reshaped in the image of the United States. Their views thus provided a powerful counter-narrative to persistent U.S. images of the Mexican people as irredeemable because of allegedly inherent inferiorities based on race, religion or culture. The dissertation also examines the role of Mexican actors in attracting, resisting and altering U.S. informal imperialism. These Mexican actors included government officials who petitioned for U.S. assistance during the French Intervention (1862-67) and the Porfiriato (1876-1911); dissident Catholic priests who requested aid for the fledgling Protestant movement in Mexico; and Mexican liberal exiles from the repressive Díaz regime, who sought U.S. support in bringing a democratic government to Mexico. More generally this dissertation challenges scholarly assessments of the United States as an isolationist nation during the mid-to-late nineteenth century, before the embrace of formal empire after the War of 1898. Though different groups of Americans would come to divergent conclusions about the foreign policy of the United States, a close analysis of U.S. efforts to reshape Mexico reveals an outward-looking and internationalist public that took seriously its self-image as a nation destined to transform the world.

Missionary work has long been an important aspect of Christianity. At least as early as the 1870's, Protestant women began journeys to foreign lands to work as missionaries and teach people about Christianity, both the spiritual dimension and the lifestyle. These were primarily independent women who sought to enlarge the women's sphere from the confined, domestic life to which they were accustomed and because of its decline by the 1930's, historians have often labeled these missions as a "feminist movement." Meanwhile, in 1898, their counterparts from The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints also began filling missions, but with a different purpose. These women, known as "Lady Missionaries," did not seek out the new role, but were assigned by Church leaders to share the Mormon message and to show that Mormon women were something other than the stereotypical downtrodden, polygamous wives often portrayed by the media. The greatest evolution of the Lady Missionary program occurred during its first three decades as the LDS Church defined the role of the Lady Missionary and established guidelines for all to follow. Three women of this period are Inez Knight, Stella Sudweeks, and LaRetta Gibbons. Knight, the first Lady Missionary, labored in England from 1898-1900, where she stood on corners as an example of a "real, live Mormon woman" and faced religious persecution from non-Mormons. Sudweeks filled her mission in the mid-West from 1910-1912, where she had been motivated by anti-Mormon sentiments, but faced less difficulties than Inez while sharing her message and also had more training and established expectations than those previously. Finally, Gibbons worked form 1933-1935, mostly in Colorado, where she spent comparatively more time among new converts teaching them their role within the Church and encouraging them to share their religion with neighbors. Their accounts and experiences show that women have long had a steady and significant role in the LDS Church's missionary program, which has long gone unnoticed and offers a new perspective on Mormon women.

By the beginning of the nineteenth century a wide cross-section of British society had strongly correlated the notions of ‘civilization’ and ‘true religion’ with the accurate measurement and profitable use of time. Their specific experience of time, however, was not a human universal but a cultural construct, deeply embedded within the clock-governed milieu of industrial-capitalist and Christian society. Consequently, in the British colonies, the portrayal of indigenous societies as being ‘time-less’ (i.e.: culturally lacking regularity, order and uniformity) came to operate as a means of constructing an inferior, ‘irregular other’. By way of two case-studies – located in the 19th-century British settler-colonies of Victoria (Australia) and the Cape Colony (South Africa) – this thesis documents the manner in which nineteenth-century British missionary and settler-colonial discourse constructed the notion of ‘time-less’ indigenous cultures. Such apparent inferiority, this thesis argues, bolstered the depiction of indigenous societies as culturally inadequate – a representation that helped to rationalize and justify settler-colonialism’s claims upon indigenous land. / The negative portrayals of ‘Aboriginal time’ and ‘African time’ also helped to cast these societies as particularly in need of temporal reform. Indeed the latter were considered to be not only out of place but also ‘out of time’ within the timescape of Christian/capitalist rituals and routines. This study highlights some of the everyday means by which British settler-colonists and Protestant missionaries sought to reform the time-orientation and rhythms of indigenous societies. The evidence provided suggests that cultural colonization in the British settler-colonies was configured – to a greater extent than previous understandings allow – by an attack on non-capitalist and non-Christian attitudes to time. Christianizing and ‘civilizing’ meant imposing – coercively and ideologically – the temporal rituals and routines of British middle-class society. / Although the universalizing will of nineteenth-century European cultural expansion was reflected in its attempt to impose a specifically western view of time upon the world, the process of temporal colonization was neither homogeneous throughout the colonies, nor uncontested by indigenous societies. On the one hand, settler-colonialism’s diverging economic objectives in the Cape and Victoria – shaped as they were by economic land/labour requirements, demographics, and localized visions of race – defined the various manners in which Europeans viewed, and sought to colonize ‘indigenous time’. On the other hand, indigenous people in both settings often successfully managed either to defy the imposition of clock-governed culture, to establish compromises between the new and old rhythms, or to exploit the temporal discourses of their self-styled reformers. This suggests that time in the colonial context may be seen as a two-edged sword: not only as an instrument of colonial power, but also as a medium for anti-colonial resistance. / By analysing the discursive constructions of a temporal other, and by documenting the everyday struggles over the dominant tempo of society, this thesis highlights time’s central role in the colonial encounter and seeks to further our understandings of the process and implications of settler-colonization and Christianization.

This comparative study of Girl Guiding in Malaya, India, Nigeria, and Australia examines the dynamics of engagement between Western and non-Western women participants. Originally a program to promote feminine citizenship only to British girls, Guiding became tied up with efforts to maintain, transform, or build different kinds of imagined communities—imperial states, nationalists movements, and independent nation states. From the program’s origins in London in 1909 until 1960 the relationship of the metropole and colonies resembled a complex web of influence, adaptation, and agency. The interactions between Girl Guide officialdom headquartered in London, Guide leaders of colonized girls, and the colonized girls who joined suggest that the foundational ideology of Guiding, maternalism, became a common language that participants used to work toward different ideas and practices of civic belonging initially as members of the British Empire and later as members of independent nations.