Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), a disease of the myocardium, causes morbidity and premature death in humans and other domestic animals including turkeys. Though DCM results from many different factors including those that are unknown or idiopathic, genetic factor is a major cause of idiopathic DCM. In this study, I assessed the molecular basis of toxin-induced DCM in turkeys by evaluating the association and effect of mutations in candidate genes in the nucleus and mitochondria on the incidence and severity of this disease. Echocardiographic measurements at 3 weeks of age showed that birds on furazolidone-containing diet exhibited a significant DCM phenotype (increased left ventricular end diastolic dimension and left ventricular end systolic dimension) with a marked decrease in the left ventricular shortening fraction. Pathological phenotype confirmed the dilated heart with extended cell necrosis. Two mutations, both in NADH dehydrogenase genes, were found to be associated with DCM. Real-time RT-PCR quantification indicated that mRNA expression of alpha cardiac actin gene (ACTC) were significantly different between control and treatment birds. While ACTC expression increased, though moderately, in control birds from week 1 to 3, it decreased significantly in treatment birds. These findings suggest that the mitochondrial DNA variation and ACTC expression may be associated with the turkey's response to toxin. Therefore, further research is needed to investigate the molecular mechanism of toxin-induced DCM in the turkey. / Master of Science

No / The DNA content of hair [1.] and [2.] is typically low compared to other tissues, as hair cells undergo dehydration and catabolic breakdown of nucleic acids and organelles during keratinisation [3]. As a consequence, ancient hair specimens have not been widely used as a source of ancient DNA. However, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has been extracted from degraded and old hair samples, including burnt specimens [4], 100-year-old Native American samples [5], and wool from a 9,400 year old Bighorn sheep [6]. We have investigated the potential of hair as an aDNA source by analyzing DNA survival in 12 samples which range from 60 to >64,800 years of age and their susceptibility to contamination with modern DNA. mtDNA was successfully amplified, cloned, and sequenced from 10 of the 12 hair samples following decontamination procedures (Table 1). DNA was quantified using Quantitative Real-Time PCR in a subset of the samples (Table 1). The survival of high copy numbers of 16S DNA from the 3,000 year-old Pazyryk horse hairs is consistent with the observation that DNA survives longer at sub-zero temperatures [7]. Of greater surprise was the persistence of high numbers of 16S and Control Region DNA molecules in hairs sampled from a bison mummy 14C dated to >64,800 years. This result was independently replicated and extends the time frame from which authentic DNA has been retrieved from hair by at least seven-fold, placing it on a par with the oldest authentic DNA retrieved from bones and teeth [8]. No nuclear DNA could be amplified from the bison hair, consistent with observations of modern hair samples [1.] and 9. M.R. Wilson, D. Polanskey, J. Butler, J.A. DiZinno, J. Replogle and B. Budowle, Extraction, PCR amplification and sequencing of mitochondrial DNA from human hair shafts, Biotechniques 18 (1995), pp. 662¿669.[9.]. It is probably significant that the bison hairs are exceedingly well preserved ¿ the atomic carbon to nitrogen ratio (3.47) is similar to modern mammal hair [10.] and [11.] and histological analysis of the specimen demonstrates the only structural modifications to be slight cuticular loss and adherent deposits (Supplemental data).

The mitochondrion is an important therapeutic target due to its roles in energy metabolism, reactive oxygen species production, and activation of cell death. The connection of these cellular processes with diabetes, obesity, neurodegenerative disorders, and cancer makes this organelle a potential control point for treatment of these diseases. The advancement of mitochondrial medicine will be accelerated by the development of organelle-specific cellular transporters as well as by strategies to enhance the activity of mitochondrially-active drugs. Here, the discovery and development of a new class of mitochondria-specific agents, mitochondria-penetrating peptides (MPPs), is described. These peptides, exemplified by the sequences (FXY)3 and (FXY)4 where FX=cyclohexylalanine and Y=basic arginine or lysine residues, display hydrophobic and cationic residues critical for access to this organelle, and appear to accumulate within cells and mitochondria through membrane potential-dependent mechanisms. Subcellular localization of the peptides was determined by the interplay of hydrophobicity and positive charge, and necessary lipophilicity “thresholds” for access to the mitochondrion. MPPs can be engineered to have minimal mitochondrial disruptive activity and cytotoxicity through minimization of hydrophobicity and length. Furthermore, MPPs appear to accumulate predominantly in the mitochondrial matrix, a feature which places them within an exclusive class of mitochondria-specific transporters and may enable delivery applications for a number of therapeutically-relevant cargoes. Information gained from MPP studies on the physiochemical parameters that drive mitochondrial localization were applied to improve the activity of the anticancer peptide d-(KLAKLAK)2, an agent that activates apoptosis through mitochondrial disruption. Residue substitutions that increased peptide hydrophobicity, regardless of changes to secondary structure, enhanced mitochondrial localization, activity, and cytotoxicity induced by the peptide. In conclusion, these studies provide important guidelines for how to drive the subcellular localization and activity of peptides, and expand the possibilities for mitochondrially-targeted therapeutics.

Myocardial and skeletal muscle high energy phosphate metabolism is abnormal in heart failure, but the pathophysiology is not understood. Plasma non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) increase in heart failure due to increased sympathetic drive, and regulate the transcription of mitochondrial uncoupling protein-3 (UCP3), through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α. The aim of the work in this thesis was to determine whether cardiac PCr/ATP ratios and skeletal muscle PCr kinetics during exercise were related to cardiac and skeletal muscle UCP3 levels respectively, thus providing a mechanism for the apparent mitochondrial dysfunction observed in heart failure. Patients having cardiac surgery underwent pre-operative testing, including cardiac and gastrocnemius 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Intra-operatively, ventricular, atrial and skeletal muscle biopsies were taken for measurement of mitochondrial protein levels by immunoblotting, along with mitochondrial function by tissue respiration rates. Fasting plasma NEFA concentrations increased in patients with ventricular dysfunction and with New York Heart Association (NYHA) class. Ventricular UCP3 levels increased and cardiac PCr/ATP decreased with NYHA class, however, demonstrated no relationship to each other. In skeletal muscle, maximal rates of oxidative ATP synthesis (Qmax) related to functional capacity. Skeletal muscle UCP3 levels increased with NYHA class but were unrelated to skeletal muscle Qmax. Tissue respiration experiments revealed no relationship between ventricular function and indices of mitochondrial coupling, furthermore, indices of mitochondrial coupling were unrelated to tissue UCP3 levels. No evidence was found to support mitochondrial uncoupling, mediated through UCP3, as a cause of the abnormalities in cardiac and skeletal muscle high energy phosphate metabolism.

Malgré la relocalisation au noyau d'une majorité des gènes du procaryote ancestral à l'origine des mitochondries, une poignée de gènes réside encore dans l'organite après près de deux milliards d'années d'évolution. Les raisons du maintien d'un génome mitochondrial sont mal comprises. Je me suis intéressé à cette problématique via des expériences de relocalisation artificielle de gènes mitochondriaux chez la levure Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Nous avons réussi, pour la première, à exprimer de manière fonctionnelle depuis le noyau le gène ATP9 qui encode une petite protéine hydrophobe essentielle au canal à protons de l'ATP synthase. Majoritairement mitochondrial chez les eucaryotes, comme S.cerevisiae, ce gène est retrouvé dans le génome nucléaire de la majorité des métazoaires, des algues vertes chlorophycées et des champignons filamenteux ascomycètes tel que Podospora anserina. Nos résultats montrent que l'hydrophobicité de la sous-unité Atp9p doit être diminuée pour qu'elle puisse être importée dans la mitochondrie depuis le cytosol. Nous avons également identifié un certain nombre d'autres adaptations pour optimiser l'expression du gène ATP9 relocalisé. Il apparaît donc que si le transfert du gène ATP9 est en principe possible chez la levure, il s'agit d'un processus très complexe. Une telle évolution n'a donc que peu de chances de se produire et d'être maintenue par la sélection naturelle, à moins que le transfert du gène ATP9 au noyau ne confère quelque avantage à l'organisme. Nous avons confirmé cette hypothèse par une étude menée chez P.anserina où nous avons montré que la relocalisation au noyau du gène ATP9, qui s'est produite naturellement au cours de l'évolution, a permis la mise en place de régulations spécifiques permettant d'ajuster les besoins en ATP synthase au cours du cycle de vie de ce champignon. Les résultats de cette étude nous amènent à introduire une nouvelle hypothèse selon laquelle les variations de contenu en gènes des génomes mitochondriaux ne sont pas influencées uniquement par des contraintes au niveau de la structure de leur produits, mais aussi par le mode de vie de l'organisme. / Despite the nuclear relocation of most genes of the ancestral procaryotic genome which gave birth to mitochondria, a small set of genes still remains into the organite after 2 billions years of evolution. The reasons for this maintenance of mitochondrial genome are currently not clear. I studied these questions by experimenting artificial relocations of mitochondrial genes in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We managed, for the first, to functionally express the ATP9 gene from the nucleus, which encodes a small hydrophobic essential subunit of the proton chanel of the ATP synthase. Mostly mitochondrial within eukaryotes like S.cerevisiae, this gene can be found in the nuclear genome in most metazoans, chlorophyceans green algae and ascomycota filamentous fungi like Podospora anserina. Our results show that the hydrophobicity of the Atp9p subunit has to be decreased to be imported into the mitochondria from the cytosol. We also identified some adaptations optimizing the expression of the relocated ATP9 gene. It seems that if the ATP9 gene relocation is possible within the yeast, yet it is a complex and difficult process. Such an evolution has only few chances to occur and to be maintained by natural selection, unless it could confer some advantage to the organism. We have confirmed this hypothesis in a study made on P.anserina, in which we showed that the natural ATP9 relocation to the nucleus that appeared during its evolution allowed the setting up of specific regulations modulating the ATP synthase needs during the life-cycle of this fungus. The results presented here lead us to introduce a new hypothesis postulating that the variations of the set of genes contained in the mitochondrial genome are influenced not only by the constraints generated by their products structure, but also by the lifestyle of the organism.

Comprendre les processus menant à l’émergence des insectes ravageurs indigènes, impliquant les interactions entre l’insecte, sa plante-hôte et son environnement, représente un enjeu scientifique majeur. Signalées depuis les années 1990 dans les peupleraies du Sud-Ouest de la France, les pullulations du puceron lanigère du peuplier, Phloeomyzus passerinii (Signoret) (Hemiptera : Aphididae), sont en constante expansion géographique. Nous avons adopté une approche pluridisciplinaire pour éclaircir la biologie de l’insecte et ses interactions avec l’hôte ainsi que pour déterminer si les pullulations étaient liées à des conditions environnementales favorisant des populations locales ou à l'expansion de populations méridionales. Une première approche, centrée sur les interactions peuplier-puceron a montré un comportement atypique du puceron traversant les cellules du parenchyme cortical pour atteindre son site d’alimentation localisé dans ce tissu. La résistance du peuplier affecte les performances du puceron de manière multifactorielle, mettant en évidence des propriétés antibiotique et antixénotique localisées dans le parenchyme après analyses par électropénétrographie. Une seconde approche modélisant le potentiel de croissance annuel des populations en conditions optimales a révélé que le réchauffement climatique et la composition génotypique des peupleraies auraient contribué à l’émergence des pullulations. Les risques seraient accrus dans le Nord pour un réchauffement de 1 °C. Enfin, une approche génétique retraçant l’histoire évolutive des populations du puceron a révélé une diversité génétique microsatellite assez élevée, avec 28 génotypes pour 44 individus analysés. On observe une certaine structure entre les régions populicoles, sans toutefois que l’on puisse négliger l’existence d’un flux génique entre les populations dû à une dispersion à longue distance. Ce travail apporte les bases de méthodes de prévision et prévention des risques. / Understanding the processes leading to the emergence of indigenous insect pests, involving interactions between the insect, its host plant and its environment, represents a major scientific challenge. Reported since the 1990s in poplar stands of South-Western France, the outbreaks of the woolly poplar aphid, Phloeomyzus passerinii (Signoret) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), have been expanding geographically. We have adopted a multidisciplinary approach to clarify the biology of the insect and its interactions with its host, and to determine whether the outbreaks were related to environmental conditions promoting local populations or expansion of southern populations. One approach, focusing on poplar-aphid interactions has shown an atypical feeding behaviour of the aphid, crossing the cortical parenchyma cells to reach its feeding site located in this tissue. Aphids’ performances were affected by poplar resistance in many ways, which highlights antibiotic and antixenotic properties localized in the cortical parenchyma after electrical penetration graph analysis. In a second approach, a model simulating the annual growth potential of aphid populations in optimal conditions was developed. It has revealed that global warming and genotypic composition of poplar stands have contributed to the emergence of outbreaks. A warming of 1 °C may increase the risks in the North. Finally, a genetic approach drawing the evolutionary history of aphid populations shows a relatively high microsatellite genetic diversity, with 28 genotypes out of 44 individuals tested. There is some structure between poplar stand regions, but we can’t ignore gene flow between populations due to long-distance dispersal. This work has provided the basis for forecasting methods and risk prevention.

La diatomée Haslea ostrearia a longtemps été considérée comme le seul organisme apte à produire un pigment surnuméraire bleu nommé marennine, connu pour son rôle dans le verdissement des branchies des huîtres affinées dans les bassins ostréicoles. Certains des mécanismes et facteurs influençant l’entrée de cette diatomée en phase de reproduction sexuée (auxosporulation) ont été mis en évidence, tels la concentration cellulaire, la qualité de l’éclairement incident, ou le préconditionnement des algues. La découverte dans le cadre d’un projet européen, de populations de diatomées apparentées à H. ostrearia en divers points du globe a conduit à la description et l’identification de trois nouvelles espèces de diatomées bleues : Haslea silbo sp. nov. des îles Canaries, Haslea karadagensis sp. nov., provenant de Mer Noire et Haslea provencialis sp. nov. de Méditerranée Occidentale. La première phylogénie moléculaire de ces espèces de diatomées bleues, ainsi que d’autres espèces de diatomées appartenant au genre Haslea, a été réalisée en utilisant trois marqueurs génétiques, la cassette ribosomale ITS1-5,8S-ITS2, le gène chloroplastique rbcL ainsi qu’un fragment du gène mitochondrial cox1. Ces trois marqueurs moléculaires montrent que les diatomées bleues forment un clade distinct au sein du genre Haslea. De plus, l’existence de deux populations d’H. ostrearia originaires des côtes françaises et suédoises sexuellement compatibles a permis d’étudier la variabilité génétique intraspécifique, en mettant en évidence quelques différences au niveau de la séquence du gène cox1. Ces différences ont également permis d’étudier chez la progéniture obtenue par croisements de ces populations, la répartition et l’héritabilité de l’ADN mitochondrial. Par ailleurs, la spectophotométrie UV-visible et la spectométrie Raman ont été utilisées pour poursuivre la caractérisation physico-chimique des pigments bleus de ces diatomées. L’existence de pigments distincts chez les nouvelles espèces de diatomées bleues a permis de proposer une première classification chimiotaxonomique. Enfin, les activités biologiques de la marennine et du pigment de l’espèce ukrainienne, H. karadagensis, ont été étudiées grâce à la détermination de leurs propriétés antibactériennes et antivirales. / The diatom Haslea ostrearia has long been considered as the only organism able to produce a blue pigment called marennine, known for greening oysters’ gills in fattening ponds. Key factors for the triggering of this diatom’s sexual reproduction (auxosporulation) have been evidenced, such as cell concentration, light quality or light conditioning. In the aim of a European project, new species of blue diatoms have been discovered : Haslea silbo sp. nov. from the Canary Islands, Haslea karadagensis sp. nov. from the Black Sea and Haslea provincialis sp. nov. from the Mediterranean Sea. A first molecular phylogeny of the genus Haslea has been made using three markers : ITS1-5.8S-ITS2, rbcL and cox1. Blue diatoms appeared to belong to a distinct cluster inside the genus. Availability of two H. ostrearia populations from France and Sweden, sexually compatibles but bearing differences in their cox1 sequences allowed studying the distribution and inheritance of the mitochondrial DNA during auxosporulation. Moreover, UV-visible spectrophotometry and Raman spectometry have been used for pigments’ characterization. Existence of distinct pigments in the newly described species led to the proposal of a chemotaxonomic classification. Finally, biological activities of marennine and H. karadagensis’ pigments have been studied in regards of their antibacterial and antiviral properties.

Energetic efficiency is important for health (e.g. genesis of obesity in humans), socio-economically important for meat production systems (e.g. feed cost to produce high quality protein) and important for the environment (e.g. use of natural resources and production of green house gases for meat production). Mitochondria are organelles that play an essential role in cellular metabolism and homeostasis related to energy utilization. These processes involve several proteins to ensure continuous availability of energy to the cells. The Shc proteins play a key role in substrate oxidation and energy metabolism. Additionally, the mitochondrial uncoupling proteins (UCPs) participate in physiological processes that may account for variation in energy expenditures in tissues. However, the mechanisms behind energy expenditure in animals are largely unknown. Thus, in order to study the energy metabolism and mitochondria function, studies using a nutritional, biochemical and molecular approaches were conducted with mice and cattle. The purpose of the first study was to determine if Shc proteins influence the metabolic response to acute (5-7 days) feeding of a high fat diet (HFD). To this end, whole animal energy expenditure and substrate oxidation were measured in the Shc knockout (ShcKO) and wild-type (WT) male mice consuming either a control or HFD diet. The activities of enzymes of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, electron transport chain (ETC), and &beta;-oxidation were investigated in liver and skeletal muscle. The study showed that ShcKO increases (P < 0.05) energy expenditure (EE) adjusted for either total body weight or lean mass. This change in EE could explain the decrease in weight gain observed in ShcKO versus WT mice fed an HFD. Thus, our results indicate that Shc proteins should be considered as potential targets for developing interventions to mitigate weight gain on HFD by stimulating EE. Although decreased levels of Shc proteins influenced the activity of some enzymes in response to high fat feeding, such as increasing the activity of acyl-CoA dehydrogenase, it did not produce concerted changes in enzymes of glycolysis, citric acid cycle or the ETC. However, the physiological significance of these changes in enzyme activities remains to be determined. The purpose of experiment 2 was to study the association among heat production, blood parameters and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number in Nellore bulls with high and low residual feed intake (RFI). The RFI values were obtained by regression of dry mater intake (DMI) in relation to average daily gain and mid-test metabolic body weight. Thus, 18 animals (9 in each group) were individually fed in a feedlot for 98 days. The heart rate (HR) of bulls was monitored for 4 consecutive days and used to calculate the estimated heat production (EHP). Electrodes were fitted to bulls with stretch belts and oxygen consumption was obtained using a facemask connected to the gas analyzer and HR was simultaneously measured for 15 minutes period. Daily EHP was calculated multiplying oxygen pulse (O2P) by the average HR, assuming 4.89 kcal/L of O2. Blood parameters such as hematocrit, hemoglobin, and glucose were assayed between 45 and 90 days. Immediately after slaughter, liver, muscle and adipose tissues (subcutaneous and visceral fat) were collected and, subsequently, mtDNA copy number per cell was quantified in tissues by quantitative real-time PCR. The proteome of hepatic tissue and levels of mitochondrial UCPs were also investigated. We found similar EHP and O2 consumption between RFI groups, while low RFI bulls (more efficient in feed conversion) shown lower HR, hemoglobin and hematocrit percentage (P < 0.05), confirming previous data from our group. In addition, 71 protein spots in liver were differentially expressed (P < 0.05) and no differences were detected for UCPs levels between RFI groups. Finally, there was no association between amounts of mtDNA and the RFI phenotypes, suggesting that mitochondrial abundance in liver, muscle, and adipose tissue was similar between efficient and inefficient groups. However, additional studies to confirm this hypothesis are needed. / A eficiência energética é importante para a saúde humana (gênese da obesidade), sistemas de produção de carne (custo dos alimentos para produzir proteínas de alta qualidade) e para o meio ambiente (uso de recursos naturais e mitigação de gases de efeito estufa). As mitocôndrias são organelas que desempenham papel central no metabolismo e homeostase relacionada a utilização da energia. Nas células, diversas proteínas são importantes para melhorar a eficiência energética. Como exemplos, as proteínas de sinalização Shc são fundamentais na oxidação de substratos e metabolismo energético e, nas mitocôndrias, existem as proteínas desacopladoras (UCPs), que participam do gasto energético e produção de calor. Entretanto, os mecanismos que controlam o gasto energético nos animais ainda é bastante desconhecido. Assim, para estudar o metabolismo energético e a função das mitocôndrias foram conduzidos dois estudos utilizando-se estratégias nutricionais, bioquímicas e moleculares com camundongos (1) e bovinos (2). Objetivou-se, no estudo 1, determinar se as proteínas Shc influenciam a resposta metabólica à alimentação contendo dieta rica em gordura (HFD) por 7 dias. Enzimas da via glicolítica, ciclo de Krebs, cadeia transportadora de elétron (CTE) e &beta;-oxidação foram analisadas no fígado e músculo de camundongos com baixa expressão de Shc (knockout ou ShcKO) e comuns (wild-type ou WT) submetidos à uma dieta controle ou à HFD. O gasto energético foi medido por câmara calorimétrica de respiração nos animais. O genótipo ShcKO apresentou maior gasto energético (P < 0.05) ajustado para o peso corporal total ou massa magra. Essa mudança poderia explicar o menor ganho de peso observado no genótipo ShcKO comparado ao WT quando consumindo a HFD. Esses resultados sugerem que as proteínas Shc podem contribuir no desenvolvimento de estratégias para mitigar o ganho de peso. Embora a redução dos níveis de Shc (ShcKO) tenha modificado a atividade de enzimas da &beta;-oxidação em resposta a HFD, tal condição não produziu mudanças semelhantes na via glicolítica, ciclo de Krebs ou CTE. Por isso, mais estudos são necessários para compreender a significância fisiológica dessas alterações. No experimento 2, objetivou-se estudar a associação entre produção de calor, variáveis sanguíneas e número de cópias de DNA mitocondrial (mtDNA) em bovinos Nelore agrupados pelo consumo alimentar residual (CAR). O CAR foi obtido por regressão do consumo de matéria seca em relação ao ganho de peso diário e peso metabólico do teste de desempenho (fase de crescimento). Assim, 18 bovinos (9 alto CAR versus 9 baixo CAR) foram confinados em baias individuais por 98 dias (fase de terminação). Os batimentos cardíacos (BC) dos bovinos foram monitorados por quatro dias consecutivos e, então, utilizados para o cálculo da produção de calor estimada (PCe). O consumo e pulso de oxigênio (O2) foram obtidos por meio de analisador de gás conectado à uma máscara facial, com medição simultânea dos BC por 15 minutos. A PCe diária foi calculada por multiplicação do pulso de O2 pela média dos BC, assumindo-se a constante 4.89 kcal/L de O2. Foram analisadas variáveis sanguíneas como hematócrito, hemoglobina e glicose (alto vs. baixo CAR). Imediatamente após o abate dos animais, amostras de fígado, músculo e tecido adiposo foram coletadas para determinação do mtDNA por PCR em tempo real. Adicionalmente, o proteoma do tecido hepático e os níveis de UCPs nos tecidos foram também investigados. Não houve diferença para PCe e consumo de O2 (P > 0.05) entre os grupos experimentais, entretanto, os animais baixo CAR (mais eficientes em conversão alimentar) demonstraram menor BC, concentração de hemoglobina e percentagem de hematócrito (P < 0.05), confirmando resultados previamente observados em nossos estudos. No fígado, 71 spots proteicos foram diferentes (P < 0.05) entre os grupos alto e baixo CAR, mas nenhuma diferença foi observada para os níveis de UCPs no músculo, fígado ou tecido adiposo. Por fim, não existiu diferença (P > 0.05) entre o número de cópias do mtDNA por célula entre os fenótipos estudados, sugerindo que o número de mitocôndrias e possivelmente a fosforilação oxidativa foi semelhante entre os grupos de animais eficientes e ineficientes. Contudo, são necessários estudos adicionais para confirmar essa hipótese.

La domestication des bétails représente une étape importante dans l'histoire de l'humanité. Le mouton était l'un des premiers animaux à être domestiqués dans le croissant fertile. Ces événements de domestication, probablement initiés au début du Néolithique, ont génétiquement construit les races contemporaines du Moyen-Orient mais aussi du monde entier. L'élevage de moutons, principalement mouton de la race Awassi, représente une activité économique essentielle du Liban ; cependant, jusqu'à présent, il n'existe que très peu de données génétiques sur cette race. De nos jours, les outils moléculaires disponibles nous permettent de définir en détail la diversité génétique des populations de moutons et de retracer leur histoire évolutive. Par conséquent, l'objectif principal de mon projet de thèse était de caractériser génétiquement la race Awassi du Liban. Pour cette étude, 277 échantillons d'ADN génomique prélevés des moutons Awassi du Liban (n = 254) et de la Syrie (n = 23) ont été analysés. Au début, nous avons utilisé cinq rétrovirus endogènes (rétrovirus endogène de moutons de Jaagsiekte-enJSRV) qui sont polymorphiques par insertion dans les génomes du mouton domestique (enJSRV-18, -7, -15, -16 et -22) et ont été précédemment considérés comme très informatifs principalement pour distinguer génétiquement les moutons primitifs des races plus modernes (c.-à-d. le dernier issu de l'épisode migratoire impliquant des moutons avec des traits de production améliorés). En utilisant cette approche, nos résultats montrent une prédominance du type R2 (enjSRV-18 seulement) confirmant que le mouton Awassi du Liban est une race moderne. Comme prévu, le rétrotype R4 (à la fois enJSRV-18 et enJSRV-7), une caractéristique commune des populations de moutons du bassin méditerranéen, se trouve également dans le génome des moutons d'Awassi du Liban et plus accentué dans les troupeaux Syriens. Il est intéressant de noter que les populations de moutons d'Awassi situés dans le nord-est du Liban et ayant ainsi un accès plus restreint à la mer Méditerranée que les autres populations (c'est-à-dire en raison de la chaîne de montagne centrale qui coupe le pays sur deux), présentent une faible fréquence de R4. Bien que l'origine des animaux utilisés pour établir les troupeaux analysés au cours de cette étude soit inconnue, nos résultats fournissent également certaines preuves que le mode d'élevage (ouvert ou fermé) peut influencer les rétrotypes observés et en particulier le R4. De manière surprenante, au cours de cette étude, nous avons également dévoilé la présence de soi-disant "Solo-LTR" (c'est-à-dire généré par une recombinaison homologue) pour un autre enJSRV (enJSRV-6) qui prédomine dans deux troupeaux d'une région particulière du Liban (Nabatieh). Et comme approche complémentaire, deux marqueurs mitochondriaux ont été utilisés, le cytochrome b (Cyt-b) et D-Loop, pour étudier l'origine maternelle de cette race et sa relation phylogénétique au sein de la famille Ovis aries. Dans notre étude, le Cyt-b se révèle plus discriminant que le D-Loop. Des mouton d'Awassi analysé, quatre haplogroupes (HPG) du Moyen-Orient ont été trouvés avec l'analyse du Cyt-b : HPG A, B, C et E, ce dernier étant peu fréquent. De même, l’analyse de la super-séquence, alignement Cyt-b_D-Loop, a permis l’identification de l’HPG D, un HPG extrêmement rare et limité jusqu’à présent aux moutons à queue grasse tel que l’Awassi. Enfin, une expansion passée de la population est observée pour les HPG A, B et C (mais pas pour HPG E) avec les distributions incompatibles et des tests de neutralité négatifs significatifs. Dans l'ensemble, les résultats obtenus au cours de cette étude fournissent une caractérisation génétique complète ainsi que quelques idées sur la structure phylogéographique des populations de moutons de la race Awassi au Liban. / Livestock domestication represents a milestone in the history of mankind. Sheep was one of the first animals to be domesticated in the Fertile Crescent. These domestication events, probably initiated in the early Neolithic, have genetically built the contemporary races of the Middle East but also of the whole world. Sheep farming, mainly sheep of Awassi breed, represents an essential economic activity of Lebanon; however, so far, only very few genetic data exist on this breed. Nowadays, the molecular tools available allow us to define in details the genetic diversity of sheep populations and to trace their evolutionary history. Hence, the main objective of my PhD project was to genetically characterize the Awassi breed of Lebanon. For this study, 277 genomic DNA samples collected from Awassi sheep of Lebanon (n=254) and Syria (n=23) were analyzed. Initially, we used five endogenous retroviruses (endogenous Jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus-enJSRV) that are insertionally polymorphic within the genomes of domestic sheep (enJSRV-18, -7, -15, -16 and -22) and have been previously shown to be very informative mainly to genetically distinguish between primitive sheep from more modern breeds (i.e. the latter originating from the migratory episode involving sheep with improved production traits). Using this approach, our results show a predominance of the R2 retrotype (enJSRV-18 only) confirming that the Awassi sheep of Lebanon is a modern breed. As expected, the R4 retrotype (both enJSRV-18 and enJSRV-7), a common feature of the sheep populations present within the Mediterranean area, is also found in the Awassi sheep of Lebanon and to more extend in those of Syria. Interesting, the populations of Awassi sheep located in the northeast of Lebanon and thus having a more restricted access to the Mediterranean Sea than the other populations (i.e. due to the central mountain chain cutting the country in two) present R4 weaklier. Even though the origin of the animals used to establish the herds analyzed during this study is unknown, our results also provide some evidences that the mode of rearing (open or closed) may influence the observed retrotypes and in particular R4. Surprisingly, during this study, we also unveiled the presence of so-called “Solo-LTR” (i.e. generated by homologous recombination) for another enJSRV (enJSRV-6) that are predominant in two herds of a particular region of Lebanon (Nabatieh). As a complementary approach, two mitochondrial markers were used, the cytochrome b (Cyt-b) and D-Loop, to investigate the maternal origin of this breed and its phylogenetic relationship within the Ovis aries family. In our study, the Cyt-b turns out to be more discriminative than the D-Loop. From the Awassi sheep analyzed, four haplogroups (HPGs) of the Middle-East were found with Cyt-b analysis: HPG A, B, C and E, the latter being the least frequent. Also, the super-sequence analysis, Cyt-b_D-Loop alignment, allowed the identification of HPG D, an extremely rare HPG, limited till now to fat-tailed sheep such as Awassi. Finally, a past population expansion is observed for the HPG A, B and C (but not for HPG E) with mismatch distributions and significant negative neutrality tests. Overall, the results obtained during this study provide a comprehensive genetic characterization as well as some insights into the phylogeographic structure of the sheep populations of the Awassi breed in Lebanon.

Le tabagisme aggrave de nombreuses maladies inflammatoires chroniques (BPCO, maladie de Crohn, arthrite rhumatoïde, psoriasis) associées à la sous-population de lymphocytes T CD4+ (LT CD4+) inflammatoires sécrétant l’IL-17 (Th17). Le tabagisme est associé à une augmentation en nombre et en proportion, du nombre de Th17 systémiques et pulmonaires, contrastant avec la rareté habituelle de ces cellules dans les tissus périphériques-sites d’inflammation. Le tabagisme est associé à l’augmentation de la sénescence des cellules pulmonaires récemment impliquée dans la pathogénèse de la BPCO. Les mécanismes responsables de l’augmentation des Th17 chez les fumeurs sont encore inconnus, et le rôle potentiel de la sénescence dans cette augmentation et la modification des fonctions des Th17 n’a jamais été exploré.Dans ce travail, nous avons fait l’hypothèse que les Th17 présentent une susceptibilité augmentée à la sénescence induite par l’exposition à la fumée de cigarette, en comparaison des autres sous-populations de LT CD4+, qui serait responsable de l’augmentation des Th17, et contribuerait à l’aggravation de leur potentiel inflammatoire. Nous avons analysé la susceptibilité des Th17 à la sénescence induite par l’exposition au condensat de FC (CFC), et le rôle de la voie de signalisation ERK1/2 dans ce phénomène. Nous avons également analysé le rôle des espèces réactives de l’oxygène (ERO), impliquées, d’une part dans la régulation de l’activation de ERK1/2, et d’autre part dans la sénescence cellulaire.Des lymphocytes T CD4+ CCR6+ Th17 et T CD4+ CCR6- quiescents de donneurs sains ont été exposés in vitro au CFC. La production d’ERO est mesurée en analysant l’oxydation de la sonde H2DCF-DA (cytométrie de flux). La sénescence est évaluée en analysant l’expression de p16INK4a (ImmunoFluorescence). L’analyse de l’expression des cytokines (Luminex/CBA) évalue le potentiel inflammatoire des cellules.Nos résultats montrent que les LT CD4+ Th17 quiescents exposés au CFC présentent une augmentation de différents marqueurs de sénescence : activité -galactosidase, expression des inhibiteurs du cycle cellulaire p16INK4a et ATF3. L’exposition au CFC modifie le profil sécrétoire des Th17 quiescents et induit leur sécrétion d’IL-8. Nous montrons que la voie des MAPKs ERK1/2 est impliquée dans l’induction du phénotype sénescent des Th17 en réponse à une exposition au CFC. La sur-expression de p16INK4a est associée à une activation et une translocation nucléaire de ERK1/2 plus importante dans les Th17. Le traitement antioxydant par la NAC, diminue l’expression des ERO et de p16INK4a induite par l’exposition au CFC dans toutes les sous-populations de LT CD4+, mais maintient la production d’ERO et l’expression de p16INK4a plus importantes dans les Th17 en comparaison des autres sous-populations de LT CD4+. Le traitement par l’inhibiteur du complexe III de la chaîne respiratoire mitochondriale, l’antimycine, maintient la production d’ERO plus importante dans les Th17, mais l’expression de p16INK4a est diminuée à des niveaux comparables dans tous les LT CD4+. En revanche, le traitement par l’agent découplant, le FCCP, diminue l’expression de p16INK4a et la production d’ERO à des niveaux comparables dans tous les LT CD4+, et abroge les différences de production d’ERO entre les Th17 et les T CD4+ CCR6-.Nous montrons que les lymphocytes Th17 humains présentent une susceptibilité plus importante à la sénescence induite par l’exposition au CFC en comparaison des autres sous-populations de LT CD4+. Nos résultats suggèrent que l’activité mitochondriale basale plus importante dans les Th17, est responsable de la plus grande susceptibilité des Th17 à la sénescence après exposition au CFC. Enfin, nous montrons pour la première fois qu’un découplage modéré de la chaîne respiratoire mitochondriale est une solution efficace pour prévenir la sénescence des Th17 et pourrait être une stratégie anti-inflammatoire dans les maladies chroniques associées aux Th17 / Smoking worsens chronic inflammatory diseases (COPD, Crohn disease, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis) associated with inflammatory CD4+ IL-17 secreting lymphocytes (Th17). Smoking is associated with an absolute number and proportion increase, at both systemic and pulmonary levels, of Th17 cells. This increase of Th17 cells in smokers contrasts with their usual rarity in peripheral tissues and inflammatory sites. Most of the knowledge about the effects of cigarette smoke exposure comes from COPD studies, and, in COPD increased senescence of pulmonary cells has been associated to the pathogenesis of the disease. The mechanisms responsible for the increase of Th17 cells are still unknown, and the potential role of senescence in this increase and functional modifications of Th17 in smokers has never been explored.In this study, we hypothesized that Th17 present a higher susceptibility to cigarette smoke-induced senescence, as compared to other CD4+ T lymphocytes subsets, which could be responsible for the increased number and proportion of Th17 in smokers, and the higher inflammatory potential of these cells. We analyzed senescence susceptibility of Th17 exposed to cigarette smoke condensate (CSC), and the potential role of ERK1/2 signaling pathway in this phenomenon. We also analyzed the potential role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) known to be implicated, on one hand in ERK1/2 activation, and on another hand in cellular senescence.Quiescent CCR6+ Th17 and CCR6- CD4+ T lymphocytes of healthy donors are exposed in vitro to cigarette smoke extract (CSE). ROS production is measured by H2DCF-DA oxidation (flow cytometry). Senescence is evaluated by p16INK4a expression (ImmunoFluorescence). Expression of relevant cytokines (Luminex/CBA) evaluated inflammatory potential.Our results show that quiescent CD4+ Th17 exposed to CSE present an increase of senescence markers: -galactosidase activity and expression of cell cycle inhibitors p16INK4a and ATF3. Moreover, CSE exposure modifies Th17 secretion pattern and increases IL-8 secretion. Our results also show that ERK1/2 MAPK pathway is implicated in Th17 senescent phenotype induction upon CSE exposure. The overexpression of p16INK4a is associated with a higher activation and a nuclear translocation of ERK1/2 in Th17 cells. Treatment with the anti-oxidant NAC reduces CSE-induced ROS and p16INK4a expression in all CD4+ T cell subsets, but the higher production of ROS and higher p16INK4a expression in Th17 as compared to other CD4+ T cells are maintained. Treatment with mitochondrial complex III inhibitor, antimycine, maintains the higher production of ROS in Th17 as compared to other CD4+ T lymphocytes, whereas p16INK4a expression is reduced to the same level in all subsets. Conversely, treatment with the mitochondrial decoupling agent, FCCP, reduces p16INK4a expression to the same level in Th17 as in other CD4+ T cell subsets, and abrogates the difference of ROS production between Th17 compared to CCR6- CD4+ T lymphocytes.We show that human Th17 lymphocytes present a higher senescence susceptibility to CSE exposure as compared to other CD4+ T lymphocytes sub-populations. Moreover, our results suggest that a higher mitochondrial activity in Th17 in steady state is responsible for the Th17 higher senescence susceptibility upon CSC exposure. Finally, we show for the first time, that mild mitochondrial respiratory chain uncoupling is an effective solution to prevent Th17 senescent phenotype and could represent an anti-inflammatory strategy in Th17-associated chronic inflammatory diseases