This thesis compares the political development of racial categories employed by the United States, Canada and Great Britain on their national censuses, particularly focusing on the enumeration of mixed-race individuals in the late 20th century. Though literature on race and the U.S. census often stresses the causal influence of social mobilization, this analysis reveals that the common explanations for the development of racial classifications such as interest group mobilization, demography and civil rights legislation are not viable in comparative context. To explore and explain how the racial state sees, this thesis conceptualizes race as a system of power relations and develops a framework of the schematic state, which operates concurrently as both an actor responsible for putting the underlying organizational pattern of race into place, solidifying a particular set of racial meanings, and implementing a scheme for the racial configuration of society, and an arena in which policy alternatives are contested and where the state itself participates among other actors. This characterization demonstrates that the schematizing impetus of the census is not an exemplar of a dichotomous relationship between an all-powerful state and powerless racial subjects; instead, the power and meaning of race exist well beyond the control of the fragmented and sometimes contradictory schematic state, from the transnational realm to the level of the group or individual. Contrary to the majority of the literature on race, this thesis demonstrates that state institutions do not act for purely domestic reasons; rather, institutions mediate between national nuances and transnational ideas about race that exist in excess of national boundaries. Thus, while the decision to count mixed-race can be explained by a crystallization of transnational ideational trends that are mediated by national politics, the domestic arena of policy making – or the policy network itself – emerges as a key factor that determines the method of multiracial enumeration. However, these domestic political and policy outcomes are not contained by borders. Once a policy is in place, it has the potential to reinforce domestic policy and contribute to the global discourse of race itself – and in its travels among these levels of abstraction, race transforms.

This thesis compares the political development of racial categories employed by the United States, Canada and Great Britain on their national censuses, particularly focusing on the enumeration of mixed-race individuals in the late 20th century. Though literature on race and the U.S. census often stresses the causal influence of social mobilization, this analysis reveals that the common explanations for the development of racial classifications such as interest group mobilization, demography and civil rights legislation are not viable in comparative context. To explore and explain how the racial state sees, this thesis conceptualizes race as a system of power relations and develops a framework of the schematic state, which operates concurrently as both an actor responsible for putting the underlying organizational pattern of race into place, solidifying a particular set of racial meanings, and implementing a scheme for the racial configuration of society, and an arena in which policy alternatives are contested and where the state itself participates among other actors. This characterization demonstrates that the schematizing impetus of the census is not an exemplar of a dichotomous relationship between an all-powerful state and powerless racial subjects; instead, the power and meaning of race exist well beyond the control of the fragmented and sometimes contradictory schematic state, from the transnational realm to the level of the group or individual. Contrary to the majority of the literature on race, this thesis demonstrates that state institutions do not act for purely domestic reasons; rather, institutions mediate between national nuances and transnational ideas about race that exist in excess of national boundaries. Thus, while the decision to count mixed-race can be explained by a crystallization of transnational ideational trends that are mediated by national politics, the domestic arena of policy making – or the policy network itself – emerges as a key factor that determines the method of multiracial enumeration. However, these domestic political and policy outcomes are not contained by borders. Once a policy is in place, it has the potential to reinforce domestic policy and contribute to the global discourse of race itself – and in its travels among these levels of abstraction, race transforms.

This is an exploratory study to examine a population which has not been widely researched, mixed-race or "culturally-complex" individuals and identification. In the interest of this study, "culturally-complex" refers to individuals who report parents being from two or more different races/ethnicities; i.e. Black, White, Latino/Hispanic, Asian, Native-American, etc. Current literature reveals through quantitative methods that mixed-race adolescents often report more stress and are at greater health risks than most mono-racial adolescents. However, past studies have not thoroughly investigated why and how this stress exists and at times is inconsistent, which points to the need for qualitative inquiry. Although most of the previous literature focuses on mixed-race adolescents, this study focused on an adult population. Study participants were recruited through snowball sampling for in-depth, open-ended interviews. The data was analyzed by searching for common themes that illustrate the possible causes for stress in culturally-complex individuals. Though this study cannot be representational of all culturally-complex individuals it did provide for noteworthy findings. Race and ethnicity, and particularly being culturally-complex are topics that are often not spoken about in the family or between siblings. In general, culturally-complex individuals are not provided with space for dialogue and so thus, having a place to voice ideas, experiences, and opinions was appreciated by all participants. In all interviews, frustration and confusion was expressed towards box-checking. Though stress and invalidation was inconsistent in past literature surrounding mixed-race and culturally-complex individuals, only some participants in this study reported stress and invalidation, while other participants did not report having ever experienced stress or invalidation. While literature had posed that often culturally-complex individuals would identify with the ethnicity of the father, in this study most of those who identified as one culture over another had identified as the ethnicity of the mother. Participants additionally had ―hierarchies of identities‖ where being culturally-complex was not always their most important role. Future research should examine populations from different socioeconomic groups and other demographics.

This thesis attempts to read Rebecca Walker's memoir Black White and Jewish as an investigation into the problematic of the social construct of race. It begins with an elaboration on the society's phobia about racial amalgamation owing to its potentiality to alter color boundaries, which are maintained through the manipulation of power. Born in a society where racial purity is highly postulated, Walker encounters an identity crisis that renders her double alienated and marginalized. What follows, thereby, is an examination of the identity formation of Walker as a mixed black and white individual, as well as a discussion of how racial hybridity may challenge essentialist racialization. With its fluidity and ambiguity, Walker's mixed race identity turns out to contest and further destabilize the immutability, stability, and homogeneity of essentializing racial categories. By cherishing the boundary-crossing capability a multiracial possesses, Walker could liberate herself from the shackles of the trauma of racism.

This thesis focuses on the patterns of racial formation, and epistemological points of entry that are salient to the mulatta experience in the United States, through the use of life writings. The results gleaned from this research are utilized to problematize revived political and social assertions of a post-feminist, post-racist United States.

Studies on mixed race and/or ethnicity families have tended to focus on the child’s struggle with identity. Although this topic is very important, in order to better understand how mixed families function as a whole, and how mixed children are socialised, my thesis explored the entire family, with a focus on the parents and kin. Specifically, I looked at the negotiations that take place between the Japanese mothers’ and British fathers’ differences, and the way in which culture, including customs, beliefs, and preferences, are then shared and transmitted to the mixed children. This qualitative, ethnographic study focused on twelve Japanese/British families in Edinburgh. Because socialisation and the transmission of culture tend to happen in the midst of doing mixed family, the following areas of the mixed families’ lives were explored: everyday lived culture, language choices, and food habits. When examining the foods eaten and the languages spoken by the mixed families, it seems that the mixed families are attempting to transmit both their linguistic and culinary heritages to their children, with their aspiration being to raise bilingual, bicultural children. In addition, this study explored the role that extended family and friends play in the lives of the mixed families as they attempt to form their new mixed family culture. The data collection was the result of 26 months of fieldwork consisting of participant observation at three local Japanese mother/toddler playgroups, interviews with both parents and extended family members, and home observations. Some major findings from the study were that, while mothers still tend to carry a heavier burden when it comes to everyday parenting, particularly in the domestic sphere, the fathers were also found to be involved in many aspects of everyday parenting. Additionally, both maternal and paternal kin were also found to offer the mixed families various types of support, with the most frequently mentioned types of support being practical and emotional. Further, mixed families were found to complicate this idea of ‘national culture’ because nationality is not tied to a culture. In this way, the transmission of culture becomes more fluid, allowing the British man to transmit “Japanese” customs and the Japanese woman to share her “British” interests with her children. Finally, while focusing on the intergenerational transmission of culture from parent to child, we find that children do indeed have agency in the transmission of culture, as they are the ones who ultimately decide whether their cultural heritage is a gift or a burden. The study thus offers a nuanced picture of mixed family lives in contemporary UK.

Thesis advisor: Janet E. Helms / Part-White Multiracial adults undergo a unique racial identity development process within a racially stratified society. Theorists suggest that different ways of self-designating either improve or impede healthy psychological outcomes for Multiracial people, but virtually no theoretical rationale or empirical studies account for the internal mechanisms underlying self-designations and mental health outcomes. People of Color and White racial identity theories were used to investigate racial dynamics implicit in the identity development and self-designations of Multiracial individuals. The current study examined the relationships between racial self-designations, internalized racial identity, and well-being in part-White Multiracial adults. Part-White (Asian/White or Black/White) Multiracial adults (N = 169) completed a measure of frequency of use of five multiracial self-designations, People of Color and White Racial Identity Attitudes Scales to assess their internal race-related processes (i.e., statuses), and the Brief Symptom Inventory 18 (Derogatis, 2001) and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1979) to assess healthy and unhealthy psychological outcomes. Multivariate Multiple Regression Analyses were conducted to examine the relationships among racial self-designation and well-being, racial self-designation and internalized racial identity, and internalized racial identity and well-being. Results specific to racial self-designations were (a) greater disorientation about racial dynamics predicted more frequent identification as White and Multiracial, (b) withdrawal from Whiteness increased monoracial minority self-designation and decreased self-designation as Multiracial (c) more complex appraisals of Whiteness predicted more frequent use of most self-designation choices, and (d) an intellectualized view of Whiteness reduced use of the monoracial minority designations and increased identifying with no racial groups at all. Self-designation use was not related to psychological outcomes, but racial identity statuses were. Overall, the results of the study supported examining racial self-designation, internalized racial identity and well-being in a single study. As expected, internalized racial identity was predictive of self-designations and well-being. This study provides initial support for adding conceptual and empirical complexity to discussions about the mental health and wellbeing of Multiracial people. Methodological limitations and implications for future theory, research, and practice are discussed. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2021. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Counseling, Developmental and Educational Psychology.

This dissertation analyzes the role of missionaries in the inception of the transnational adoption movement between East Asia and United States from 1949 to 1960. While copious psychological and social scientific scholarship on adoption exists, the history of the adoption movement is relatively understudied. Recent research has accentuated adoption history from a geopolitical perspective, yet it fails to note the complex and diversified theological distinctiveness among the missionaries associated with the movement. By examining archival materials written by missionaries, this study narrates a more nuanced historical account of the transnational adoption movement, with a significant emphasis on racial issues and the theme of global friendship. Chapter one provides historical context by situating the transnational adoption movement between America and East Asia in the decades after the Second World War. Chapter two argues that Robert Pierce and Everett Swanson solidified the link between child sponsorship and adoption, consequently establishing the foundation for the later adoption movement. In chapters three and four, the study demonstrates that Pearl Buck and Helen Doss alleviated racism in America by opposing “racial matching” via their potent prose and adoption narratives. Chapter five examines Harry and Bertha Holt’s unconventional method of placing adoptees exclusively in Christian homes and the conflict with social workers that ensued. This study departs from the dominant perspective that the formation of the transnational adoption movement was directly related to the creation of neo-colonial relations between America and East Asia. Simultaneously, it refutes the prevalent hagiographic accounts that depict missionaries’ engagement as rescue missions focused exclusively on child welfare. By situating missionaries’ stories in the context of postwar America, the study demonstrates that the transnational adoption movement was part of a broader social phenomenon. Changing definitions of families, postwar prosperity, missionaries’ active anti-racism propaganda, and their increasing interest in global friendship all contributed to the inauguration and spread of transnational adoptions in the United States. / 2024-03-31

Multiracial individuals have been largely overlooked by the government (Nagai, 2016) and in the education sector (Botts, 2016). The lack of social network and community resources (Miville et al., 2005) have contributed to the challenges that Multiracial individuals face when finding a sense of belonging and positive sense of identity. During the transition into college, unique opportunities are presented to Multiracial individuals as they experience detachment from one culture group and have the chance to begin interacting and affiliating with other cultural groups (Houston & Hogan, 2009). Most students have a natural desire to associate themselves with others (Beck & Malley, 1998), but Multiracial individuals struggle to find racially and culturally aligned groups. Campus involvement is important because it leads to higher rates of academic performance and growth, retention, and academic satisfaction (Gardner & Barnes, 2007). This dissertation seeks to examine the phenomenon of the Multiracial student experience on a college campus situated in a diverse Californian city. Using a phenomenological qualitative methodology, this study explored the identity patterns that Multiracial individuals experienced from Renn’s (2000) patterns among Multiracial college students. In addition to the most frequent patterns that individuals experience, resources and networks that provided on campus support were also investigated.

This thesis explores three main questions: (1) How is diversity and equity in education in Manitoban schools addressed and does this include mixed-raced students?, (2) What are mixed-race students’ experiences with and perceptions of ethnocultural equity in the Manitoban secondary school system and how do these experiences impact their personal and collective identities in the following areas: Social (relationships with peers and family members), Political (notions of Canadian identity and citizenship), Identity (sense of cultural and racial identity and social positioning), Cultural (influences of related cultural groups and communities), and Pedagogical (instructional materials, relationships with teachers and staff, teaching practices and pedagogies, school policies and initiatives) and (3) What can educators and teacher-educators learn from this research that could be used toward a more informed and successful practice? Conclusions are that more work needs to be done to develop a provincial antiracism and ethnocultural policy document for development and implementation that will help establish a system of accountability and consistency, assist our leaders in understanding the complexities of mixedness, establish relationships with different relevant community groups and families, critically examine the curricula for bias, investigate student placement, provide opportunities for counselling staff, explore how to prepare staff to deal with racial and ethnocultural harassment, and consider the representation of mixedness in the staff population. / February 2017