京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・論文博士 / 博士(農学) / 乙第13019号 / 論農博第2829号 / 新制||農||1042(附属図書館) / 学位論文||H28||N4965(農学部図書室) / 32947 / (主査)教授 久米 新一, 教授 松井 徹, 教授 祝前 博明 / 学位規則第4条第2項該当 / Doctor of Agricultural Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Orientadores: Maria Regina Wolf Maciel, Gláucia Maria Ferreira Pinto / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Química / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T04:47:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Fregolente_PatriciaBogalhosLucente_D.pdf: 1646847 bytes, checksum: 3d6492736154ef2a22cb3203e984dd70 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: A produção de monoacilglicerol (MAG) e diacilglicerol (DAG) foi conduzida de forma enzimática catalisada por diferentes lipases comerciais. MAG é importante emulsificante utilizado nas indústrias de alimentos, farmacêuticas e cosméticas. DAG, assim como os MAG, são utilizados como emulsificantes e atualmente pesquisas têm apontado os DAG como substituto aos óleos de triacilglicerol (TAG) em alimentos. A produção de MAG e DAG pode ocorrer por via química ou enzimática. A rota enzimática, mais limpa ambientalmente, dispõe ainda de duas alternativas de processo: sistema livre de solventes ou sistema utilizando solventes orgânicos. Além da preocupação em utilizar tecnologia enzimática a fim de desenvolver processos que não agridam o meio ambiente, a produção de MAG e DAG vem como alternativa para a utilização da glicerina excedente do processo de produção de biodiesel. A proposta de integrar ambos os processos de produção de ésteres com a glicerólise para produção de MAG e DAG utilizando a glicerina sem que haja descarte inadequado é uma alternativa que viabiliza a própria produção de biodiesel. Durante a produção de MAG e DAG, observou-se a possibilidade de reutilização de lípases imobilizadas sem que houvesse retirada dos biocatalisadores do meio reacional e sem necessitar de tratamento para posterior utilização (filtração das lípases, limpeza, estocagem). A lipase imobilizada foi reutilizada por, no mínimo, 9 ciclos de reação semicontínua sem perdas significativas na conversão de TAG. Do mesmo modo que para a lipase imobilizada, a lipase livre também foi reutilizada no processo por 8 ciclos de reação, demonstrando ser possível, nesse caso em particular, o reuso de lípases não imobilizadas. Após as reações enzimáticas, MAG e DAG foram separados por destilação molecular sem degradação térmica dos produtos em temperaturas de destilação de no máximo 250 oC. Foram utilizados dois equipamentos de destilação molecular: um destilador molecular centrifugo de escala laboratorial importado e um destilador molecular centrífugo de escala piloto desenvolvido com tecnologia nacional pelo grupo de pesquisa do Laboratório de Desenvolvimento de Processos de Separação (LDPS) onde este trabalho de tese foi desenvolvido. Foram obtidos MAG com 80% (m/m) de pureza e óleo rico em DAG com concentração (m/m) de 53%. Os produtos destilados foram caracterizados segundo suas massas molares massa específica e temperatura de degradação / Resumo: A produção de monoacilglicerol (MAG) e diacilglicerol (DAG) foi conduzida de forma enzimática catalisada por diferentes lipases comerciais. MAG é importante emulsificante utilizado nas indústrias de alimentos, farmacêuticas e cosméticas. DAG, assim como os MAG, são utilizados como emulsificantes e atualmente pesquisas têm apontado os DAG como substituto aos óleos de triacilglicerol (TAG) em alimentos. A produção de MAG e DAG pode ocorrer por via química ou enzimática. A rota enzimática, mais limpa ambientalmente, dispõe ainda de duas alternativas de processo: sistema livre de solventes ou sistema utilizando solventes orgânicos. Além da preocupação em utilizar tecnologia enzimática a fim de desenvolver processos que não agridam o meio ambiente, a produção de MAG e DAG vem como alternativa para a utilização da glicerina excedente do processo de produção de biodiesel. A proposta de integrar ambos os processos de produção de ésteres com a glicerólise para produção de MAG e DAG utilizando a glicerina sem que haja descarte inadequado é uma alternativa que viabiliza a própria produção de biodiesel. Durante a produção de MAG e DAG, observou-se a possibilidade de reutilização de lípases imobilizadas sem que houvesse retirada dos biocatalisadores do meio reacional e sem necessitar de tratamento para posterior utilização (filtração das lípases, limpeza, estocagem). A lipase imobilizada foi reutilizada por, no mínimo, 9 ciclos de reação semicontínua sem perdas significativas na conversão de TAG. Do mesmo modo que para a lipase imobilizada, a lipase livre também foi reutilizada no processo por 8 ciclos de reação, demonstrando ser possível, nesse caso em particular, o reuso de lípases não imobilizadas. Após as reações enzimáticas, MAG e DAG foram separados por destilação molecular sem degradação térmica dos produtos em temperaturas de destilação de no máximo 250 oC. Foram utilizados dois equipamentos de destilação molecular: um destilador molecular centrifugo de escala laboratorial importado e um destilador molecular centrífugo de escala piloto desenvolvido com tecnologia nacional pelo grupo de pesquisa do Laboratório de Desenvolvimento de Processos de Separação (LDPS) onde este trabalho de tese foi desenvolvido. Foram obtidos MAG com 80% (m/m) de pureza e óleo rico em DAG com concentração (m/m) de 53%. Os produtos destilados foram caracterizados segundo suas massas molares massa específica e temperatura de degradação / Abstract: Monoacylglycerol (MAG) and diacylglycerol (DAG) were produced through lipasecatalyzed glycerolysis reaction employing commercial lipases. The first product MAG is widely used as emulsifiers in foods, cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. DAG, the same way of MAG, is usually used as emulsifiers. Nowadays, DAG replacing triacylglycerol (TAG) oil in food has been studied. MAG and DAG production can be carried out through chemical or enzymatic syntheses. The enzymatic route, more friendly environmentally, can be done by solvent-free system or employing organic solvents. To obtain more quality products, produced by green technologies and minimizing the production of toxic waste, this research focused preferably on the solvent-free lipasecatalyzed process. Besides the concern of using enzymatic technology to develop processes friendly to the environment, the MAG and DAG production is an alternative for glycerol from biodiesel production. The proposal to incorporate both processes of esters (biodiesel) with the glycerolysis to MAG and DAG production is an alternative that enables the biodiesel production, employing the glycerol surplus adding value to it avoiding the discard. During the enzymatic syntheses of the emulsifiers MAG and DAG, it was observed that additional processes of separation and preparation of immobilized lipases for new cycles of enzymatic reaction could be avoided. The immobilized lipase could be used at least for nine times without essential loss of TAG conversion. As the same way, the free lipase could be reused at least for 8 times, showing that, for this particular case, the reuse of non-immobilized lipase was possible. After the enzymatic reactions, MAG and DAG were separated through molecular distillation process without thermal degradation of products in distillation temperatures of 250 oC at most. Two equipments were used for the molecular distillations: an imported centrifugal molecular distiller, laboratory scale, and a centrifugal molecular distiller, pilot scale, a national technology developed by this research group at the Laboratory of Separation Process Development (LDPS). MAG of 80% of purity was obtained and also na oil rich in DAG (53 wt%). The distilled products were characterized according to their characteristics of molar weight, density and degradation temperature / Doutorado / Desenvolvimento de Processos Químicos / Doutor em Engenharia Química

This study (Wassell & Young 2007; Wassell et al., 2010a) shows that behenic (C22:0) fatty acid rich Monoacylglycerol (MAG), or its significant inclusion, has a pronounced effect on crystallisation (Wassell et al., 2010b; 2012; Young et al., 2008) and interfacial kinetics (3.0; 4.0). New interfacial measurements demonstrate an unusual surface-interactive relationship of long chain MAG compositions, with and without Polyglycerol Polyricinoleate (PGPR). A novel MAG synthesised from Moringa oleifera Triacylglycerol (TAG) influenced textural behaviour of water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions and anhydrous TAG systems (4.0: 5.0; 6.0). Emulsifier mixtures of PGPR and MAG rich in C18:1 / 18:2 and C16:0 / C18:0 do not decrease interfacial tension compared with PGPR alone. Only those containing MAG with significant proportion of C22:0 impacted interfacial behaviour. A mixture of C22:0 based MAG and PGPR results with decreasing tension from ~20°C and is initially dominated by PGPR, then through rearrangement, the surface is rapidly dominated by C22:0 fatty acids. A Moringa oleifera based MAG showed unusual decreased interfacial behaviour not dissimilar to PGPR. All other tested MAG (excluding a C22:0 based MAG), irrespective of fatty acid composition resulted with high interfacial tension values across the measured temperature spectrum (50°C to 5°C). A relative decrease of interfacial tension, with decreased temperature, was greater, the longer the chain length (Krog & Larsson 1992). Moreover, results from bulk and interfacial rheology showed that the presence of C22:0 based MAG has a pronounced effect on both elastic modulus (G’) and viscous modulus (G’’). Through a multidisciplinary approach, results were verified in relevant product applications. By means of ultrasonic velocity profiling with pressure difference (UVP-PD) technique, it was possible to examine the effect of a C22:0 based MAG in an anhydrous TAG system whilst in a dynamic non-isothermal condition (3.0). The non-invasive UVP-PD technique conclusively validated structural events. The application of a Moringa oleifera based MAG in low TAG (35% - 41%), W/O emulsions, results in high emulsion stability without a co-surfactant (PGPR). The bi-functional behaviour of Moringa oleifera based MAG is probably attributed to miscibility (Ueno et al., 1994) of its fatty acids, ranging ~30% of saturated fatty acids (SAFA), with ~70% of C18:1 (5.0). It is concluded that the surface-interactive behaviour of Moringa oleifera based MAG, is attributed to approximately 10% of its SAFA commencing from C20:0. When examined separately and compared, results showed that physical effect of a Moringa oleifera based MAG was not dissimilar to PGPR, influencing the crystallisation kinetics of the particular anhydrous TAG system. When either was combined with a C22:0 rich MAG, enhanced gelation onset and strong propensity to form dendrite structure occurred (5.0). Macrobeam and synchrotron radiation microbeam small angle x-ray diffraction (SR-μ-SAXD) was utilized (6.0) to assess behavior of C22:0 rich MAG, with and without PGPR (Wassell et al., 2012). The C22:0 based MAG combined with PGPR promoted TAG crystallisation as observed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Polarised optical microscopy (POM) observations indicated that C22:0 based MAG eliminates formation of large crystal aggregates, resulting in the likely formation of tiny Pickering TAG / MAG crystals (6.0). It is concluded that the presence and interactive behaviour of Pickering surface-active MAG, is strongly linked to increased fatty acid chain length, which induce increased textural resilience owing to viscoelasticity (4.0; 5.0). A multidisciplinary approach was able to verify structuring behaviour (4.0; 5.0), using multiple analyses (Wassell et al., 2010b; 2012; Young et al., 2008). Novel structuring solutions in reduced TAG based systems have been provided (4.0; 5.0). This study both enhances current understanding of structuring in low TAG W/O emulsions and has led to novel MAG compositions, which address emulsification, structuring and texture in TAG based food systems (Wassell et al., 2010a; 2012a; 2012b; 2012c; 2012d; 2012e; Bech et al., 2013).

In the early nineties cannabinoid receptors, the main target for Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the psychoactive component of marijuana were identified. Shortly after their endogenous ligands, N-arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide, AEA) and 2-diacylglycerol (2-AG) were characterized. The enzymes primarily responsible for catalysing the degradation of AEA and 2-AG are fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MGL) respectively. AEA is a member of the N-acylethanolamine (NAE) class of lipids, which depending on the acyl chain length and number of double bonds can act as ligands for a variety of biological targets. Exogenous cannabinoids have long been reported to have analgesic effects, however the clinical usefulness of such substances is limited by their psychoactive effects. Inhibition of endocannabinoid degradation would mean enhancing the therapeutic effects without producing these unwanted side effects. In order to succeed in developing such compounds the pharmacology of the enzymes responsible for the degradation of endocannabinoids has to be thoroughly understood. When the preclinical part of this thesis was planned, FAAH had been well characterized whereas little was known as to the pharmacology of MGL. A series of compounds were tested in this first study aiming to find MGL-selective compounds. Although no compounds showed selectivity for MGL over FAAH, several interesting agents affecting both enzymes were identified. In order to increase the knowledge concerning which patient group would benefit from such treatment strategies it is important to investigate in which pain states the endocannabinoids/NAEs are altered. Thus the general aim of the clinical part of this thesis was to investigate the levels of endocannabinoids/NAEs in the interstitium of the trapezius muscle in women suffering from chronic neck/shoulder pain (CNSP) and chronic wide spread pain (CWP) and in healthy pain-free controls. Furthermore for the CNSP the effect of training, which is a commonly recommended treatment for these patients, on the levels of endocannabinoids/NAEs was also investigated. Microdialysis technique in the trapezius muscle was used for sampling and masspectrometry was used for analysing. Two NAEs, N-palmitoylethanolamine (PEA) and N-stearoylethanolamine (SEA), could be repeatedly measured. The levels of these two lipids were significantly higher in CNSP compared to CON. The result showed also that PEA and SEA mobilize differently in CWP compared to both CNSP and CON. Taken together the results presented in thesis represent an early characterization of the pharmacology of MGL and provides novel information on NAEs in chronic muscle pain.

Les cellules beta pancréatiques sécrètent l’insuline lors d’une augmentation post-prandiale du glucose dans le sang. Ce processus essentiel est contrôlé par des facteurs physiologiques, nutritionnels et pathologiques. D’autres sources d’énergie, comme les acides aminés (leucine et glutamine) ou les acides gras potentialisent la sécrétion d’insuline. Une sécrétion d’insuline insuffisante au besoin du corps déclanche le diabète. Le rôle que joue l’augmentation du calcium intracellulaire et les canaux K+/ATP dans la sécrétion d’insuline est bien connu. Bien que le mécanisme exact de la potentialisation de la sécrétion d’insuline par les lipides est inconnu, le cycle Glycérolipides/Acides gras (GL/FFA) et son segment lipolytique ont été reconnu comme un composant essentiel de la potentialisation lipidique de la sécrétion d’insuline. Le diacylglycérol, provenant de la lipolyse, a été proposé comme un signal lipidique important d’amplification. Cependant, l’hydrolyse des triglycérides et des diacylglycérides a été démontrée essentielle pour la sécrétion d’insuline stimulée par le glucose, en suggérant un rôle du monoacylglycérol (MAG) dans ce processus. Dans cette étude, on démontre que la réduction de la sécrétion d’insuline stimulée par le glucose, lors d’une inhibition de la lipolyse, est restaurée par l’addition de MAG. Dans les cellules beta pancréatiques, le niveau de MAG augmente en présence des concentrations élevées du glucose, et également lorsqu’on inhibe l’enzyme MAG hydrolase abhydrolase-6 (ABHD6) avec l’inhibiteur spécifique WWL70. L’analyse lipidomique a démontré qu’après la stimulation des cellules beta pancréatiques avec le glucose et aussi avec le WWL70, l’espèce la plus accumulée de MAG était le 1-stearoylglycérol (1-SG). L’addition de 1-SG, de 1-palmitoylglycérol (1-PG) ou de WWL70 augmente la sécrétion d’insuline stimulée par le glucose, et cette augmentation est indépendante de la génération de acides gras à partir de MAG. Cela suggère que le MAG est un signal lipidique pour la potentialisation de la sécrétion d’insuline stimulée par le glucose. De plus, la surexpression du gène d’ABHD6 dans les cellules INS832/13 cause une réduction de la sécrétion d’insuline, due probablement à la diminution des niveaux intracellulaire de MAG. Avec le but de comprendre le mécanisme moléculaire impliqué dans la potentialisation de la sécrétion d’insuline par le MAG, on a bloqué l’action du récepteur vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) liant le MAG par l’agent pharmacologiste, AMG9810. Le traitement des cellules beta pancréatique par AMG9810 entraîne une diminution de la potentialisation de la sécrétion de l’insuline induite par le MAG. Il est a noter que le MAG pourrait activer TRPV1 par une liaison physique dans la membrane cellulaire interne; ce qui entraînerai l’entrée du calcium dans la cellule, et ensuite la stimulation de l’exocytose des granules à insuline. En soutien de cette hypothèse, on a trouvé une diminution du calcium intracellulaire lorsqu’on traite au AMG9810 des cellules beta pancréatique de rat (provenant des îlots dispersés) stimulées au glucose et au WWL70. L’ensemble des résultats suggère que le MAG est un médiateur de la potentialisation lipidique de la sécrétion d’insuline stimulée par le glucose. Vu que l’inhibition pharmacologique d’ABHD6 augmente la sécrétion d’insuline, on pourra conclure que cette enzyme représente une cible thérapeutique potentielle dans le développement des médicaments anti-diabétiques, visant une augmentation de la sécrétion d’insuline. / Insulin secretion by the pancreatic b-cell in response to post-prandial increase in blood glucose levels is an essential physiological process that is governed by cellular, nutritional and pathological factors. Other fuels including amino acids like leucine and glutamine and also fatty acids contribute to further augment insulin secretion. Failure to secrete adequate amount of insulin according to the changing demands of the body by b-cell is a key determinant of diabetes. The role played by the elevated Ca2+ influx and K+-ATP channels in insulin secretion is well known. Even though the precise mechanism of the lipid amplification of insulin secretion and the involved molecular signals are not clear, Glycerolipid/Free fatty acid (GL/FFA) cycle and its lipolytic segment have been recognized as essential components in the lipid amplification pathway of insulin secretion. Diacylglycerol produced by lipolysis was proposed as an important lipid amplification signal. However, hydrolysis of triglycerides and also of diacylglycerols is shown to be essential for glucose stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS), indicating a possible role for monoacylglycerol (MAG) in this process. In the present study we demonstrate that the obliterated GSIS due to lipolysis inhibition in b-cells can be restored by providing exogenous MAG. In the b-cells MAG levels increase significantly in the presence of high glucose concentration and specific inhibition of the major MAG hydrolase, abhydrolase-6 (ABHD6), in b-cells and islets with WWL70 leads to accumulation of MAG with concomitant increase in insulin secretion. Lipidomics analysis indicated that the major MAG species that is elevated by high glucose as well as WWL70 addition is 1-stearoylglycerol (1-SG). Exogenously added 1-SG and also 1-palmitoylglycerol (1-PG) strongly enhanced GSIS and this augmentation is not dependent on the generation of FFA by these MAGs. This indicates that MAG is a potential candidate for being the lipid signal for GSIS amplification. Further evidence for this was provided by the observation that overexpression of the MAG hydrolase ABHD6 in INS832/13 cells, resulted in decreased insulin secretion, probably owing to the lowered MAG level inside the b-cells. Pharmacological studies using AMG9810, a specific antagonist of transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) receptor that binds MAG, revealed that a blockade of TRPV1 strongly attenuated the MAG-augmented insulin secretion. Since MAG is a potential activator of TRPV1, it is likely that MAG binds on the inner surface of the cell membrane to TRPV1, which in turn triggers rapid influx of Ca2+ thereby promoting insulin granule exocytosis. Thus, AMG9810 was found to lower Ca2+ influx into dispersed rat islet cells that was induced by high glucose and also WWL70. These results collectively suggest that MAG is the potential mediator of the lipid amplification of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Our results also indicate that pharmacological intervening at the ABHD6 hydrolysis step enhances insulin secretion; this enzyme protein can be a promising thrapeutic target for the development of anti-diabetic drugs that promote insulin secretion.

The endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids) anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG) exert their effects predominantly through cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors, but these actions are short-lived because of rapid hydrolysis by fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), respectively. Selective inhibition of either enzyme elevates CNS levels of the appropriate endocannabinoid and produces analgesic effects with fewer psychomimetic side effects than Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary active constituent of marijuana. While cannabinoid receptor agonists and FAAH inhibitors reliably produce anti-inflammatory and anti-hyperalgesic effects in the carrageenan test and other inflammatory pain models, much less is known about the consequences of inhibiting MAGL in these assays. Here, we tested whether the selective MAGL inhibitor JZL184 would reduce nociceptive behavior in the carrageenan test. JZL184 significantly attenuated carrageenan-induced paw edema and mechanical allodynia, whether administered before or after carrageenan. Complementary genetic and pharmacological approaches revealed that JZL184’s anti-allodynic effects required both CB1 and CB2 receptors, but only CB2 receptors mediated its anti-edematous actions. Importantly, the anti-edematous and anti-allodynic effects of JZL184 underwent tolerance following repeated injections of high dose JZL184 (16 or 40 mg/kg), but repeated administration of low dose JZL184 (4 mg/kg) retained efficacy. Interestingly, the anti-allodynic effects of the combination of low dose of JZL184 (4mg/kg) and high dose of the selective and long-acting FAAH inhibitor PF-3845 (10 mg/kg) was augmented compared with each drug alone. On the contrary, the combination treatment did not reduce edema more than either JZL184 or PR-3845 given alone. These results suggest that low doses of MAGL inhibitors alone or in combination with FAAH inhibitors, reduce inflammatory nociception through the activation of both CB1 and CB2 receptors with no evidence of tolerance following repeated administration.

Les cellules beta pancréatiques sécrètent l’insuline lors d’une augmentation post-prandiale du glucose dans le sang. Ce processus essentiel est contrôlé par des facteurs physiologiques, nutritionnels et pathologiques. D’autres sources d’énergie, comme les acides aminés (leucine et glutamine) ou les acides gras potentialisent la sécrétion d’insuline. Une sécrétion d’insuline insuffisante au besoin du corps déclanche le diabète. Le rôle que joue l’augmentation du calcium intracellulaire et les canaux K+/ATP dans la sécrétion d’insuline est bien connu. Bien que le mécanisme exact de la potentialisation de la sécrétion d’insuline par les lipides est inconnu, le cycle Glycérolipides/Acides gras (GL/FFA) et son segment lipolytique ont été reconnu comme un composant essentiel de la potentialisation lipidique de la sécrétion d’insuline. Le diacylglycérol, provenant de la lipolyse, a été proposé comme un signal lipidique important d’amplification. Cependant, l’hydrolyse des triglycérides et des diacylglycérides a été démontrée essentielle pour la sécrétion d’insuline stimulée par le glucose, en suggérant un rôle du monoacylglycérol (MAG) dans ce processus. Dans cette étude, on démontre que la réduction de la sécrétion d’insuline stimulée par le glucose, lors d’une inhibition de la lipolyse, est restaurée par l’addition de MAG. Dans les cellules beta pancréatiques, le niveau de MAG augmente en présence des concentrations élevées du glucose, et également lorsqu’on inhibe l’enzyme MAG hydrolase abhydrolase-6 (ABHD6) avec l’inhibiteur spécifique WWL70. L’analyse lipidomique a démontré qu’après la stimulation des cellules beta pancréatiques avec le glucose et aussi avec le WWL70, l’espèce la plus accumulée de MAG était le 1-stearoylglycérol (1-SG). L’addition de 1-SG, de 1-palmitoylglycérol (1-PG) ou de WWL70 augmente la sécrétion d’insuline stimulée par le glucose, et cette augmentation est indépendante de la génération de acides gras à partir de MAG. Cela suggère que le MAG est un signal lipidique pour la potentialisation de la sécrétion d’insuline stimulée par le glucose. De plus, la surexpression du gène d’ABHD6 dans les cellules INS832/13 cause une réduction de la sécrétion d’insuline, due probablement à la diminution des niveaux intracellulaire de MAG. Avec le but de comprendre le mécanisme moléculaire impliqué dans la potentialisation de la sécrétion d’insuline par le MAG, on a bloqué l’action du récepteur vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) liant le MAG par l’agent pharmacologiste, AMG9810. Le traitement des cellules beta pancréatique par AMG9810 entraîne une diminution de la potentialisation de la sécrétion de l’insuline induite par le MAG. Il est a noter que le MAG pourrait activer TRPV1 par une liaison physique dans la membrane cellulaire interne; ce qui entraînerai l’entrée du calcium dans la cellule, et ensuite la stimulation de l’exocytose des granules à insuline. En soutien de cette hypothèse, on a trouvé une diminution du calcium intracellulaire lorsqu’on traite au AMG9810 des cellules beta pancréatique de rat (provenant des îlots dispersés) stimulées au glucose et au WWL70. L’ensemble des résultats suggère que le MAG est un médiateur de la potentialisation lipidique de la sécrétion d’insuline stimulée par le glucose. Vu que l’inhibition pharmacologique d’ABHD6 augmente la sécrétion d’insuline, on pourra conclure que cette enzyme représente une cible thérapeutique potentielle dans le développement des médicaments anti-diabétiques, visant une augmentation de la sécrétion d’insuline. / Insulin secretion by the pancreatic b-cell in response to post-prandial increase in blood glucose levels is an essential physiological process that is governed by cellular, nutritional and pathological factors. Other fuels including amino acids like leucine and glutamine and also fatty acids contribute to further augment insulin secretion. Failure to secrete adequate amount of insulin according to the changing demands of the body by b-cell is a key determinant of diabetes. The role played by the elevated Ca2+ influx and K+-ATP channels in insulin secretion is well known. Even though the precise mechanism of the lipid amplification of insulin secretion and the involved molecular signals are not clear, Glycerolipid/Free fatty acid (GL/FFA) cycle and its lipolytic segment have been recognized as essential components in the lipid amplification pathway of insulin secretion. Diacylglycerol produced by lipolysis was proposed as an important lipid amplification signal. However, hydrolysis of triglycerides and also of diacylglycerols is shown to be essential for glucose stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS), indicating a possible role for monoacylglycerol (MAG) in this process. In the present study we demonstrate that the obliterated GSIS due to lipolysis inhibition in b-cells can be restored by providing exogenous MAG. In the b-cells MAG levels increase significantly in the presence of high glucose concentration and specific inhibition of the major MAG hydrolase, abhydrolase-6 (ABHD6), in b-cells and islets with WWL70 leads to accumulation of MAG with concomitant increase in insulin secretion. Lipidomics analysis indicated that the major MAG species that is elevated by high glucose as well as WWL70 addition is 1-stearoylglycerol (1-SG). Exogenously added 1-SG and also 1-palmitoylglycerol (1-PG) strongly enhanced GSIS and this augmentation is not dependent on the generation of FFA by these MAGs. This indicates that MAG is a potential candidate for being the lipid signal for GSIS amplification. Further evidence for this was provided by the observation that overexpression of the MAG hydrolase ABHD6 in INS832/13 cells, resulted in decreased insulin secretion, probably owing to the lowered MAG level inside the b-cells. Pharmacological studies using AMG9810, a specific antagonist of transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) receptor that binds MAG, revealed that a blockade of TRPV1 strongly attenuated the MAG-augmented insulin secretion. Since MAG is a potential activator of TRPV1, it is likely that MAG binds on the inner surface of the cell membrane to TRPV1, which in turn triggers rapid influx of Ca2+ thereby promoting insulin granule exocytosis. Thus, AMG9810 was found to lower Ca2+ influx into dispersed rat islet cells that was induced by high glucose and also WWL70. These results collectively suggest that MAG is the potential mediator of the lipid amplification of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Our results also indicate that pharmacological intervening at the ABHD6 hydrolysis step enhances insulin secretion; this enzyme protein can be a promising thrapeutic target for the development of anti-diabetic drugs that promote insulin secretion.

L’obésité est un facteur de risque important du diabète de type 2 et des maladies cardio- vasculaires. Durant le développement de l’obésité, le remodelage pathologique du tissu adipeux et l’inflammation locale contribuent à la mise en place d’une inflammation systémique, une accumulation de gras ectopique et une résistance à l’insuline. Les macrophages jouent un rôle important dans la régulation des voies signalétiques inflammatoires qui sont liées à leurs différents états d’activation. En effet, l’influence de diverses adipokines, cytokines et hormones ainsi que la disponibilité des nutriments vont induire leur polarisation en un phénotype soit pro- inflammatoire M1, soit anti-inflammatoire M2. De ce fait, comprendre les mécanismes et acteurs impliqués dans la polarisation des macrophages résidents du tissu adipeux vers un phénotype anti-inflammatoire M2 pourrait apporter une stratégie pour traiter les complications de l’obésité. La suppression de l’α/β-hydrolase domain-6 (ABHD6), une monoacylglycérol lipase, a démontré chez la souris des effets bénéfiques contre l’obésité, le diabète de type 2 et d’autres maladies inflammatoires. Cependant, le rôle précis de l’ABHD6 dans l’activation et la polarisation des macrophages en conditions inflammatoires, ainsi que les mécanismes sous-jacents, ne sont pas clairement définis. Le but de cette étude était d’investiguer : 1) le rôle immuno-métabolique de l’ABHD6 dans l’inflammation chronique du tissu adipeux induite par l’obésité chez la souris, et 2) le rôle régulateur de l’ABHD6 dans l’activation et la polarisation des macrophages dans des conditions inflammatoires aiguës induite par le lipopolysaccharide (LPS). En employant des approches pharmacologiques et génétiques, nous avons démontré que la délétion globale de l’ABHD6, chez les souris rendues obèses par une diète riche en gras, permet de maintenir un tissu adipeux sain au niveau immuno-métabolique. En effet, les souris ABHD6-KO nourries avec une diète riche en gras montrent une expression réduite de l’expression des marqueurs pro- inflammatoires (Mcp1 and Cd11c), fibrotiques (Col5a1) et hypoxiques (Hif1a) dans tous leurs tissus adipeux (viscéral, sous-cutané et brun). Le nombre de macrophages pro-inflammatoires M1 est aussi diminué dans les tissus adipeux viscéral et brun des souris KO nourries à la diète grasse. De plus, la suppression de l’ABHD6 a changé la polarisation des macrophages d’un phénotype pro-inflammatoire M1 vers un phénotype anti-inflammatoire M2 dans des lignées cellulaires de macrophages (RAW264.7 et J774A.1) et des macrophages péritonéaux primaires de souris traités avec le LPS. Collectivement, nos résultats supportent la vision que l’ABHD6 a un rôle pro-inflammatoire dans induit par la diète riche en gras ou le LPS. Ces observations nous ont permis d’obtenir un aperçu du rôle de l’ABHD6 dans les voies immuno-métaboliques des tissus adipeux et suggèrent que l’ABHD6 pourrait être une cible thérapeutique intéressante pour contrer l’inflammation et les complications de l’obésité. / Obesity is a major risk factor for type 2 diabetes (T2D) and cardiovascular diseases. Pathologic adipose tissue (AT) remodeling and local inflammation contribute to systemic inflammation, ectopic fat accumulation and insulin resistance in obesity. Macrophages play an important role in inflammatory pathways, and these cells possess different activation states, M1 pro-inflammatory and M2 anti-inflammatory, influenced by adipokines, cytokines, hormones, and fuel availability. Thus, understanding the mechanisms and players involved in AT-resident macrophage polarization towards an anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype may provide a strategy to treat obesity complications. Suppression/deletion of the monoacylglycerol lipase α/β-hydrolase domain-6 (ABHD6) was previously shown to have beneficial effects against obesity, T2D, and other inflammatory disorders. However, it is not precisely known if ABHD6 plays any direct role in macrophage activation and polarization under inflammatory conditions, and if it does, the underlying mechanisms are yet to be defined. The aim of this study is to investigate: 1) the immunometabolic role of ABHD6 in obesity-induced chronic AT inflammation in mice, and 2) the regulatory role of ABHD6 in macrophage activation/polarization under conditions of acute lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation. Employing pharmacological and genetic approaches, we demonstrate that global ABHD6 deletion maintains AT immunometabolic health during diet-induced obesity in mice. High-fat-diet(HFD)-fed whole-body ABHD6-KO (HFD-ABHD6- KO) mice exhibit lower expression of pro-inflammatory (Mcp1 and Cd11c), fibrosis (Col5a1) and hypoxia (Hif1a) markers in all fat depots. The pro-inflammatory M1-macrophages in the visceral and brown fat depots are also reduced in HFD-ABHD6-KO mice. Additionally, ABHD6 suppression switches LPS-induced macrophage polarization from an M1-like phenotype towards an anti- inflammatory M2 state in the macrophage cell lines (RAW264.7 and J774A.1) and in primary peritoneal macrophages. Collectively, our results support the view that ABHD6 has a pro-inflammatory role under conditions of HFD- and LPS-induced inflammation. These findings provide an insight into the role of ABHD6 in AT immunometabolic pathways in obesity, and suggest ABHD6 as a therapeutic target for inflammation and obesity-related complications.

Les dérivés de l’opium (opioïdes) et du cannabis (cannabinoïdes) présentent de nombreuses propriétés intéressantes. Suite à l’identification de leurs récepteurs respectifs, diverses stratégies pharmacologiques ont tenté d’exploiter leurs propriétés analgésiques. Le clonage des récepteurs cannabinoïdes CB1 et CB2 a favorisé la découverte de composés endogènes pour ces récepteurs, les endocannabinoïdes, dont les deux plus étudiés sont l’anandamide et le 2-arachidonyl glycérol (2-AG). Cette découverte a également mené à l’identification d’enzymes qui catalysent l’inactivation de ces cannabinoïdes endogènes : une amidohydrolase des acides gras ou FAAH ainsi qu’une monoacylglycérol lipase ou MAGL. Le système cannabinoïde endogène est régulé à la hausse dans une variété de processus pathologiques, tels que les douleurs inflammatoire et neuropathique. Cette augmentation est habituellement interprétée comme une réaction physiologique visant à rétablir l’homéostasie et elle a notamment été observée en périphérie. Les endocannabinoïdes semblent donc agir de façon spécifique à des moments clés dans certains tissus ciblés afin de minimiser les conséquences reliées au déclenchement de ces douleurs. Cette observation est très intéressante d’un point de vue thérapeutique puisqu’elle suggère la possibilité de cibler les enzymes de dégradation des endocannabinoïdes dans le but d’augmenter leurs concentrations locales et d’ainsi prolonger leur action neuromodulatrice. En périphérie, l’activation des récepteurs cannabinoïdes induit des effets antinociceptifs bénéfiques tout en minimisant les effets indésirables souvent associés à leur activation centrale. Nous avons orienté nos travaux vers la modulation périphérique de ce système endogène à l’aide d’inhibiteurs des enzymes de dégradation des endocannabinoïdes afin d’évaluer leur potentiel thérapeutique et d’élucider les mécanismes d’action qui sous-tendent leurs effets dans des modèles animaux de douleurs inflammatoire et neuropathique. Nous avons démontré que cette approche permet de soulager les symptômes associés à ces deux types de douleurs, et ce via les récepteurs CB1 et CB2. Les systèmes cannabinoïde et opioïde présentent des similitudes, dont des localisations similaires le long des voies de la douleur, des mécanismes d’action relayés par des récepteurs couplés aux protéines G et des propriétés pharmacologiques communes telles que l’analgésie. Le système opioïde est impliqué dans les effets antinociceptifs induits par les cannabinoïdes. À l’inverse, le rôle joué par le système cannabinoïde dans ceux induits par la morphine demeure incertain. Nous avons démontré que les effets antinociceptifs périphériques et spinaux produits par la morphine sont diminués chez les souris génétiquement modifiées chez lesquelles l’expression des récepteurs CB1 ou CB2 a été éliminée, laissant supposer un rôle pour ces récepteurs dans les effets de la morphine. Nous avons de plus démontré que la diminution de l'analgésie produite par la morphine dans ces souris n'est pas causée par un dysfonctionnement des récepteurs opioïdes mu (MOP) ni par une régulation à la baisse de ces récepteurs. Nos résultats confirment l'existence d'interactions fonctionnelles entre les systèmes cannabinoïde et opioïde au niveau périphérique et spinal. Ces observations sont prometteuses d’un point de vue thérapeutique puisqu’une modulation périphérique ciblée des niveaux d’endocannabinoïdes et d’opioïdes endogènes permettrait de produire des effets analgésiques bénéfiques potentiellement synergiques tout en minimisant les effets indésirables associés à l’activation centrale de ces systèmes. / Opium (opioids) and cannabis (cannabinoids) derivatives present many interesting properties. Following the identification of their respective receptors, various pharmacological strategies have tried to exploit their analgesic properties. The cloning of cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors has promoted the discovery of endogenous agonists of these receptors named endocannabinoids. The two mostly studied endocannabinoids are anandamide and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG). This has also led to the identification of enzymes that catalyze the inactivation of these endogenous cannabinoids: a fatty acid amide hydrolase or FAAH and a monoacylglycerol lipase or MAGL. It is known that the endogenous cannabinoid system is upregulated in a variety of pathological processes, such as inflammatory and neuropathic pain. This increase is usually interpreted as a physiological response to restore homeostasis and it was particularly observed in the periphery. Endocannabinoids seem to act specifically at key moments in targeted tissues to minimize the consequences related to the onset of pain. This observation is very interesting from a therapeutic perspective because it suggests the possibility of targeting the endocannabinoid degrading enzymes in order to increase their local concentrations and thus prolong their neuromodulatory action. At the peripheral level, the activation of cannabinoid receptors induces beneficial antinociceptive effects while minimizing side effects often associated with their central activation. We focused our work on the peripheral modulation of this endogenous system using inhibitors of endocannabinoid degrading enzymes to assess their therapeutic potential and to elucidate the mechanisms of action underlying their effects in animal models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain. We have demonstrated that this approach can relieve the symptoms associated with these two types of pain, through the activation of CB1 and CB2 receptors. The opioid and cannabinoid systems have similarities, including comparable locations along the pain pathways, mechanisms of action relayed by G protein-coupled receptors and common pharmacological properties such as analgesia. The opioid system is involved in the antinociceptive effects induced by cannabinoids. In contrast, the participation of the cannabinoid system in those induced by morphine remains uncertain. We have demonstrated that peripheral and spinal antinociceptive effects induced by morphine are reduced in genetically modified mice in which the expression of CB1 and CB2 receptors was eliminated, suggesting a role for these receptors in the effects of morphine. We have further demonstrated that the decrease in morphine-induced analgesia in these mice is not caused by a malfunction of the mu opioid receptors (MOP) or by a down-regulation of these receptors. Our results confirm the existence of functional interactions between cannabinoid and opioid systems at the peripheral and spinal levels. These findings are promising from a therapeutic perspective since a targeted modulation of the levels of endocannabinoids and endogenous opioids would induce potentially synergistic beneficial analgesic effects while minimizing side effects associated with the central activation of these systems.

Le cycle glycérolipides/acides gras libres (GL/FFA) est une voie métabolique clé qui relie le métabolisme du glucose et des acides gras et il est composé de deux processus métaboliques appelés lipogenèse et lipolyse. Le cycle GL/FFA, en particulier la lipolyse des triglycérides, génère diverses molécules de signalisation pour réguler la sécrétion d'insuline dans les cellules bêta pancréatiques et la thermogenèse non-frissonnante dans les adipocytes. Actuellement, les lipides provenant spécifiquement de la lipolyse impliqués dans ce processus sont mal connus. L’hydrolyse des triglycérides dans les cellules β est réalisée par les actions successives de la triglycéride lipase adipocytaire pour produire le diacylglycérol, ensuite par la lipase hormono-sensible pour produire le monoacylglycérol (MAG) et enfin par la MAG lipase (MAGL) qui relâche du glycerol et des acides gras. Dans les cellules bêta, la MAGL classique est très peu exprimée et cette étude a démontré que l’hydrolyse de MAG dans les cellules β est principalement réalisée par l'α/β-Hydrolase Domain-6 (ABHD6) nouvellement identifiée. L’inhibition d’ABHD6 par son inhibiteur spécifique WWL70, conduit à une accumulation des 1-MAG à longues chaines saturées à l'intérieur des cellules, accompagnée d’une augmentation de la sécrétion d'insuline stimulée par le glucose (GSIS). Baisser les niveaux de MAG en surexprimant ABHD6 dans la lignée cellulaire bêta INS832/13 réduit la GSIS, tandis qu’une augmentation des niveaux de MAG par le « knockdown » d’ABHD6 améliore la GSIS. L'exposition aiguë des monoacylglycérols exogènes stimule la sécrétion d'insuline de manière dose-dépendante et restaure la GSIS supprimée par un inhibiteur de lipases appelé orlistat. En outre, les souris avec une inactivation du gène ABHD6 dans tous les tissus (ABHD6-KO) et celles avec une inactivation du gène ABHD6 spécifiquement dans la cellule β présentent une GSIS stimulée, et leurs îlots montrent une augmentation de la production de monoacylglycérol et de la sécrétion d'insuline en réponse au glucose. L’inhibition d’ABHD6 chez les souris diabétiques (modèle induit par de faibles doses de streptozotocine) restaure la GSIS et améliore la tolérance au glucose. De plus, les résultats montrent que les MAGs non seulement améliorent la GSIS, mais potentialisent également la sécrétion d’insuline induite par les acides gras libres ainsi que la sécrétion d’insuline induite par divers agents et hormones, sans altération de l'oxydation et l'utilisation du glucose ainsi que l'oxydation des acides gras. Nous avons démontré que le MAG se lie à la protéine d’amorçage des vésicules appelée Munc13-1 et l’active, induisant ainsi l’exocytose de l'insuline. Sur la base de ces observations, nous proposons que le 1-MAG à chaines saturées agit comme facteur de couplage métabolique pour réguler la sécrétion d'insuline et que ABHD6 est un modulateur négatif de la sécrétion d'insuline. En plus de son rôle dans les cellules bêta, ABHD6 est également fortement exprimé dans les adipocytes et son niveau est augmenté avec l'obésité. Les souris dépourvues globalement d’ABHD6 et nourris avec une diète riche en gras (HFD) montrent une faible diminution de la prise alimentaire, une diminution du gain de poids corporel et de la glycémie à jeun et une amélioration de la tolérance au glucose et de la sensibilité à l'insuline et ont une activité locomotrice accrue. En outre, les souris ABHD6-KO affichent une augmentation de la dépense énergétique et de la thermogenèse induite par le froid. En conformité avec ceci, ces souris présentent des niveaux élevés d’UCP1 dans les adipocytes blancs et bruns, indiquant le brunissement des adipocytes blancs. Le phénotype de brunissement est reproduit dans les souris soit en les traitant de manière chronique avec WWL70 (inhibiteur d’ABHD6) ou des oligonucléotides anti-sense ciblant l’ABHD6. Les tissus adipeux blanc et brun isolés de souris ABHD6-KO montrent des niveaux très élevés de 1-MAG, mais pas de 2-MAG. L'augmentation des niveaux de MAG soit par administration exogène in vitro de 1-MAG ou par inhibition ou délétion génétique d’ABHD6 provoque le brunissement des adipocytes blancs. Une autre évidence indique que les 1-MAGs sont capables de transactiver PPARα et PPARγ et que l'effet de brunissement induit par WWL70 ou le MAG exogène est aboli par les antagonistes de PPARα et PPARγ. L’administration in vivo de l’antagoniste de PPARα GW6471 à des souris ABHD6-KO inverse partiellement les effets causés par l’inactivation du gène ABHD6 sur le gain de poids corporel, et abolit l’augmentation de la thermogenèse, le brunissement du tissu adipeux blanc et l'oxydation des acides gras dans le tissu adipeux brun. L’ensemble de ces observations indique que ABHD6 régule non seulement l’homéostasie de l'insuline et du glucose, mais aussi l'homéostasie énergétique et la fonction des tissus adipeux. Ainsi, 1-MAG agit non seulement comme un facteur de couplage métabolique pour réguler la sécrétion d'insuline en activant Munc13-1 dans les cellules bêta, mais régule aussi le brunissement des adipocytes blancs et améliore la fonction de la graisse brune par l'activation de PPARα et PPARγ. Ces résultats indiquent que ABHD6 est une cible prometteuse pour le développement de thérapies contre l'obésité, le diabète de type 2 et le syndrome métabolique. / The glycerolipid/ free fatty acid (GL/FFA) cycle is a key metabolic pathway that links glucose and fatty acid metabolism and it consists of lipogenesis and lipolysis. GL/FFA cycling, especially in its lipolysis arm, generates various lipid signaling molecules to regulate insulin secretion in pancreatic ß-cells and non-shivering thermogenesis in adipocytes. Currently, the lipolysis-derived lipid signals involved in this process are uncertain. Triglyceride hydrolysis in mammalian cells is accomplished by the sequential actions of adipose triglyceride lipase to produce diacylglycerol, by hormone sensitive lipase to produce monoacylglycerol (MAG) and by MAG lipase (MAGL) that releases free fatty acid and glycerol. Our work shows that in pancreatic ß-cell, the classical MAGL is poorly expressed and that MAG hydrolysis is mainly conducted by the newly identified α/β-Hydrolase Domain-6 (ABHD6). Inhibition of ABHD6 by its specific inhibitor WWL70, leads to long-chain saturated 1-MAG accumulation inside the cells, accompanied by enhanced glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS). Decreasing the MAG levels by overexpression of ABHD6 in the ß-cell line INS832/13 reduces GSIS, while increasing MAG levels by ABHD6 knockdown enhances GSIS. Acute exposure of INS832/13 cells to various MAG species dose-dependently stimulates insulin secretion and restores GSIS suppressed by the pan-lipase inhibitor orlistat. Also, various biochemical and pharmacological experiments show that saturated 1-MAG levels species rather than unsaturated or 2-MAG species best correlate with insulin secretion. Furthermore, whole-body and β-cell-specific ABHD6-KO mice exhibit enhanced GSIS in vivo, and their isolated islets show elevated MAG production and GSIS. Inhibition of ABHD6 in low dose streptozotocin diabetic mice restores GSIS and improves glucose tolerance. Results further show that ABHD6-accessible MAGs not only enhance GSIS, but also potentiate fatty acid and non-fuel-induced insulin secretion without alteration in glucose oxidation and utilization as well as fatty acid oxidation. We have identified that MAG binds and activates the vesicle priming protein Munc13-1, thereby inducing insulin exocytosis. Based on all these observations, we propose that lipolysis-derived saturated 1-MAG acts as a metabolic coupling factor to regulate insulin secretion and ABHD6 is a negative modulator of insulin secretion. Besides its role in ß-cells, ABHD6 is also highly expressed in adipocytes and its level is increased with obesity. Mice globally lacking ABHD6 on high fat diet (HFD) show modestly reduced food intake, decreased body weight gain, insulinemia and fasting glycemia and improved glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity and enhanced locomotor activity. In addition, ABHD6-KO mice display increased energy expenditure and cold-induced thermogenesis. In accordance with this, these mice show elevated UCP1 level in white and brown adipocytes, indicating browning of white adipocytes. The browning phenotype is reproduced in the mice either chronically treated with the ABHD6 inhibitor WWL70 or an antisense oligonucleotides targeting ABHD6. White and brown adipose tissues isolated from whole body ABHD6 KO mice show greatly elevated levels of 1-MAG, but not 2-MAG. Increasing MAG levels by either exogenous administration of 1-MAG or ABHD6 inhibition or genetic deletion induces browning of white adipocytes in a cell-autonomous manner. Further evidence indicates that 1-MAGs can transactivate PPARα and PPARγ and the browning effect induced by WWL70 or exogenous MAG is abolished by PPARα and PPARγ antagonists. In vivo administration of the PPARα antagonist GW6471 to ABHD6 KO mice partially reversed the ABHD6-KO effects on body weight gain, and abolishes the enhanced thermogenesis, white adipose browning and fatty acid oxidation in brown adipose tissue. All these observations indicate that ABHD6 regulates not only insulin and glucose homeostasis but also energy homeostasis and adipose tissue function. Thus, ABHD6-accessible 1-MAG not only acts as a metabolic coupling factor to regulate fuel and non-fuel induced insulin secretion by activating Munc13-1 in beta cells, but also regulates glucose, insulin and energy homeostasis. The latter effects are mediated at least in part via browning of white adipocytes and enhanced brown fat function through the activation of PPARα and PPARγ. Collectively these findings suggest that ABHD6 is a promising target for developing therapeutics against obesity, type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome.