In current time web pages are being greatly extended to the wide area of human activity. Pages are important for commerce, entertainment and for education too. One of the largest advantage is easy availability all over the world and huge information content, which offer. In those work I will be consider on creation Germany- Czech monolingual dictionary for support subject MEID.

This study investigated the possible relationship between bilingualism and social anxiety disorder. Past research has indicated developmental delays in language as increasing risk for other psychological difficulties. With the pressure to learn two languages, possibly in the drastically different environments of home, school, and/or work, individuals may be vulnerable to becoming socially anxious in conjunction with language use. This study examined a series of factors surrounding linguistic development and reports of social anxiety. Participants were divided into 4 groups: Socially Anxious (SA; n = 43) monolinguals, Non-Socially Anxious (Non-SA; n = 81) monolinguals, SA bilinguals (n = 30), and Non-SA bilinguals (n = 43). Measures of social anxiety, linguistic ability, and demographic information were collected and compared. The results of this study showed no direct link between bilingualism and SAD. However results raised other questions as there was an overrepresentation of SA bilinguals having accents when compared with Non-SA bilingual individuals.

The present study explores the use of discourse markers (DMs) in talk-in-interaction of Korean-English bilingual children and their monolingual peers in two languages. The corpus-driven analysis proposes a core meaning of the two DMs as signaling contextual divergence in two monolingual groups. Both similarities and differences coexist in the bilingual data. While the core meaning of well was contextual divergence, that of isscanha was of the cognitive thinking process. The bilingual children utilized the first language DM as an additional resource for their own interactional purposes, such as for searching words and reasoning. The statistical analyses revealed that bilingual children used both DMs in a similar frequency to both monolingual groups. In both monolingual and bilingual data, age affected the use of well but gender did not, and neither age nor gender affected the use of isscanha. Bilingual children's use of the English DM had a correlation with the length of exposure to school context. In addition, awareness of socio-cultural factors in the use of Korean DM appeared differently from that of their monolingual peers. The study uncovered that bilingual children developed interactional competence through the use of DMs in various natural interactions. / CITE/Language Arts

Idag är ett stort antal av eleverna i den svenska skolan flerspråkiga. Forskning visar att elever är i stort behov av att få använda samtliga av sina språk i syfte att skapa mening och förståelse. Denna studie undersöker erbjudanden till transspråkande i tre läromedel för behovet hos flerspråkiga elever. Att få använda alla sina språk gynnar inte enbart språkinlärningen utan även självkänslan, självtilliten, inlärningen och ämneskunskaperna. Studiens resultat visar att läromedlen använder transspråkande arbetssätt i varierande omfattning. Två av tre läromedel erbjuder fler transspråkande erbjudanden än enspråkiga erbjudanden. I studiens diskussion problematiseras omfattningen och utformandet av de transspråkande arbetssätten i relation till elevers kunskapsutveckling. Alla elever i skolan gynnas av transspråkande arbetssätt.

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Although awareness of cultural diversity is slowly occurring, the need for multicultural curricula is increasing more each day as even more ethnically and linguistically diverse students enter into United States classrooms. The education of English Language Learners is a controversial topic due to people's mixed beliefs on the amount of English and primary language instruction needed to aid students' English language development. Due to the shortage of bilingual teachers many English Language Learners in the Unites States are learning English through the regular education classroom instructed by monolingual English-speaking teachers. This case study implemented qualitative research methods in order to extend understanding of how a monolingual English speaking teacher can strategically incorporate Hispanic English Language Learner's primary language into the classroom setting and the teacher's experiences throughout this process. This case study will introduce a monolingual English speaking teacher to interventions that can foster the use of Hispanic English Language Learners' primary language in the classroom setting. The findings of this study include the experiences the participating teacher encounters throughout the intervention process. These findings include: heightened awareness, challenges, changes to interventions and enjoyment.

O objetivo desta dissertação foi desenvolver um estudo sobre o léxico relativo aos animais de estimação (especificamente cães e gatos) a partir de setenta unidades lexicais (ULs) contemporâneas utilizadas em Língua Italiana. As ULs foram retiradas de material impresso especializado em animais de estimação, cães e gatos, e selecionadas por temas referentes a: 1. modos afetivos e/ou específicos de nos referirmos a um animal de estimação; 2. partes do corpo; 3. procedimentos veterinários e comportamento animal; 4. profissionais e especialistas; 5. abrigos e instituições; 6. objetos e adereços relacionados aos cuidados e ao bem-estar dos animais. Com esse elenco, verificamos como os dicionários monolíngues de Língua Italiana lematizam e trabalham essas ULs que, muitas vezes, permeiam dentre as linguagens de especialidades. Para o desenvolvimento do trabalho, contamos com fundamentação teórica baseada em Lexicografia, Lexicologia, Terminografia, Terminologia e Metalexicografia, apontando considerações de estudiosos da área como Lara (1996, 2004, 2006), Barbosa (1990, 1995, 1996, 1997), Aubert (1996), Guerra (2003) e Welker (2004), entre outros. Apesar de, em um primeiro momento, a pesquisa se voltar para os correspondentes entre Língua Portuguesa e Língua Italiana, referindo-se ao tema, não foi nosso propósito trabalhar com o conceito de equivalentes de tradução, mas, sim, constatar como essas unidades lexicais são tratadas em obras lexicográficas. Contamos com os dicionários monolíngues em formato eletrônico Lo Zingarelli (2012), Garzanti (2011), ambos em CD-ROM, e De Mauro (versão on-line) para a análise. As especificidades de cada uma das setenta unidades lexicais são analisadas quanto a definições, marcas de uso, exemplos de uso, polissemia, homonímia e notas remissivas. Os resultados obtidos nos mostraram que a maioria das unidades lexicais selecionadas já são lematizadas pelas obras. Das 70 ULs escolhidas para a pesquisa, 60 são lematizadas pelo dicionário De Mauro, 59 pelo Garzanti e 58 pelo Lo Zingarelli. Nesta última obra, somente 5 ULs foram caracterizadas como termos com indicação de marcas de uso de área de especialidade, enquanto Garzanti apresenta 3 ULs e De Mauro, 8. Vale ressaltar que as ULs lematizadas em cada um dos três dicionários nem sempre são as mesmas, por exemplo, somente Garzanti inclui tiragraffi (arranhador), apenas Lo Zingarelli inclui pet therapy (pet-terapia) e De Mauro é o único a lematizar in calore (no cio). Averiguamos, também, que há divergência entre os dicionários na inclusão ou não dessas unidades lexicais como entrada, uma vez que as ULs relacionadas aos animais de estimação às vezes aparecem no corpo do verbete como exemplo de uso. Ao analisar as Introduções das obras, percebemos que faltam informações quanto à ordem das acepções e ao uso de sistema de remissivas. A análise realizada nesta pesquisa é uma contribuição para lexicógrafos, tradutores, professores e estudiosos de Língua Italiana. / The goal of this dissertation was studying the lexicon related to pets (especially dogs and cats) by examining seventy lexical units (LUs) used in contemporary Italian language. The LUs were selected from printed material focused on pets, dogs and cats, and arranged according to subjects as: 1. affective and / or specific modes of referring to a pet; 2. body parts; 3. veterinary procedures and animal behavior; 4. professionals and experts; 5. shelters and institutions; 6. objects and accessories related to animal care and welfare. These groups gave us the possibility to analyze how monolingual Italian dictionaries lemmatize and deal with such LUs, which are often used in specific purpose languages. Our theoretical framework is based on lexicography, lexicology, Terminography, Terminology and Metalexicography, guided by writers such as Lara (1996, 2004, 2006), Barbosa (1990, 1995, 1996, 1997), Aubert (1996), Guerra (2003) and Welker (2004), among others. Although this research indicated some correspondents in Portuguese and Italian, working with the concept of translation equivalents was not our intention, but rather verifying how these lexical units are shown in lexicographical works. For the analysis, we chose the monolingual dictionaries in electronic format Lo Zingarelli (2011), Garzanti (2010), both on CD-ROM, and De Mauro (on-line version). The specificities of each of the seventy lexical units were explored according to their definitions, tags, example sentences, polysemy, homonymy and cross-references. Results have shown that the mentioned works already lemmatize most of the selected lexical units. Among the 70 LUs chosen for the study, 60 are lemmatized by De Mauro dictionary, 59 by Garzanti and 58 by Lo Zingarelli. In this last one, only 5 LUs were characterized as terms indicating tags related to specific languages, while Garzanti features 3 LUs and De Mauro, 8. It is noteworthy that the LUs lemmatized in each of the three dictionaries are not always the same, for example, only Garzanti includes tiragraffi (scratcher), only Lo Zingarelli includes pet therapy and De Mauro is the only one that lemmatizes in calore (rutting). We also noticed that there is disagreement between the dictionaries about including these lexical units as entries or not, since the LUs related to pets are sometimes seen in the definitions as example sentences. By analyzing the Introductions of these dictionaries, we realized that there is missing information about meanings and the cross-references system. The analysis in this research is a contribution to lexicographers, translators, teachers and Italian language scholars.

O objetivo desta dissertação foi desenvolver um estudo sobre o léxico relativo aos animais de estimação (especificamente cães e gatos) a partir de setenta unidades lexicais (ULs) contemporâneas utilizadas em Língua Italiana. As ULs foram retiradas de material impresso especializado em animais de estimação, cães e gatos, e selecionadas por temas referentes a: 1. modos afetivos e/ou específicos de nos referirmos a um animal de estimação; 2. partes do corpo; 3. procedimentos veterinários e comportamento animal; 4. profissionais e especialistas; 5. abrigos e instituições; 6. objetos e adereços relacionados aos cuidados e ao bem-estar dos animais. Com esse elenco, verificamos como os dicionários monolíngues de Língua Italiana lematizam e trabalham essas ULs que, muitas vezes, permeiam dentre as linguagens de especialidades. Para o desenvolvimento do trabalho, contamos com fundamentação teórica baseada em Lexicografia, Lexicologia, Terminografia, Terminologia e Metalexicografia, apontando considerações de estudiosos da área como Lara (1996, 2004, 2006), Barbosa (1990, 1995, 1996, 1997), Aubert (1996), Guerra (2003) e Welker (2004), entre outros. Apesar de, em um primeiro momento, a pesquisa se voltar para os correspondentes entre Língua Portuguesa e Língua Italiana, referindo-se ao tema, não foi nosso propósito trabalhar com o conceito de equivalentes de tradução, mas, sim, constatar como essas unidades lexicais são tratadas em obras lexicográficas. Contamos com os dicionários monolíngues em formato eletrônico Lo Zingarelli (2012), Garzanti (2011), ambos em CD-ROM, e De Mauro (versão on-line) para a análise. As especificidades de cada uma das setenta unidades lexicais são analisadas quanto a definições, marcas de uso, exemplos de uso, polissemia, homonímia e notas remissivas. Os resultados obtidos nos mostraram que a maioria das unidades lexicais selecionadas já são lematizadas pelas obras. Das 70 ULs escolhidas para a pesquisa, 60 são lematizadas pelo dicionário De Mauro, 59 pelo Garzanti e 58 pelo Lo Zingarelli. Nesta última obra, somente 5 ULs foram caracterizadas como termos com indicação de marcas de uso de área de especialidade, enquanto Garzanti apresenta 3 ULs e De Mauro, 8. Vale ressaltar que as ULs lematizadas em cada um dos três dicionários nem sempre são as mesmas, por exemplo, somente Garzanti inclui tiragraffi (arranhador), apenas Lo Zingarelli inclui pet therapy (pet-terapia) e De Mauro é o único a lematizar in calore (no cio). Averiguamos, também, que há divergência entre os dicionários na inclusão ou não dessas unidades lexicais como entrada, uma vez que as ULs relacionadas aos animais de estimação às vezes aparecem no corpo do verbete como exemplo de uso. Ao analisar as Introduções das obras, percebemos que faltam informações quanto à ordem das acepções e ao uso de sistema de remissivas. A análise realizada nesta pesquisa é uma contribuição para lexicógrafos, tradutores, professores e estudiosos de Língua Italiana. / The goal of this dissertation was studying the lexicon related to pets (especially dogs and cats) by examining seventy lexical units (LUs) used in contemporary Italian language. The LUs were selected from printed material focused on pets, dogs and cats, and arranged according to subjects as: 1. affective and / or specific modes of referring to a pet; 2. body parts; 3. veterinary procedures and animal behavior; 4. professionals and experts; 5. shelters and institutions; 6. objects and accessories related to animal care and welfare. These groups gave us the possibility to analyze how monolingual Italian dictionaries lemmatize and deal with such LUs, which are often used in specific purpose languages. Our theoretical framework is based on lexicography, lexicology, Terminography, Terminology and Metalexicography, guided by writers such as Lara (1996, 2004, 2006), Barbosa (1990, 1995, 1996, 1997), Aubert (1996), Guerra (2003) and Welker (2004), among others. Although this research indicated some correspondents in Portuguese and Italian, working with the concept of translation equivalents was not our intention, but rather verifying how these lexical units are shown in lexicographical works. For the analysis, we chose the monolingual dictionaries in electronic format Lo Zingarelli (2011), Garzanti (2010), both on CD-ROM, and De Mauro (on-line version). The specificities of each of the seventy lexical units were explored according to their definitions, tags, example sentences, polysemy, homonymy and cross-references. Results have shown that the mentioned works already lemmatize most of the selected lexical units. Among the 70 LUs chosen for the study, 60 are lemmatized by De Mauro dictionary, 59 by Garzanti and 58 by Lo Zingarelli. In this last one, only 5 LUs were characterized as terms indicating tags related to specific languages, while Garzanti features 3 LUs and De Mauro, 8. It is noteworthy that the LUs lemmatized in each of the three dictionaries are not always the same, for example, only Garzanti includes tiragraffi (scratcher), only Lo Zingarelli includes pet therapy and De Mauro is the only one that lemmatizes in calore (rutting). We also noticed that there is disagreement between the dictionaries about including these lexical units as entries or not, since the LUs related to pets are sometimes seen in the definitions as example sentences. By analyzing the Introductions of these dictionaries, we realized that there is missing information about meanings and the cross-references system. The analysis in this research is a contribution to lexicographers, translators, teachers and Italian language scholars.

Many texts we encounter in our everyday lives are lexically and syntactically very complex. This makes them difficult to understand for people with intellectual or reading impairments, and difficult for various natural language processing systems to process. This motivated the need for text simplification (TS) which transforms texts into their simpler variants. Given that this is still a relatively new research area, many challenges are still remaining. The focus of this thesis is on better understanding the current problems in automatic text simplification (ATS) and proposing new data-driven approaches to solving them. We propose methods for learning sentence splitting and deletion decisions, built upon parallel corpora of original and manually simplified Spanish texts, which outperform the existing similar systems. Our experiments in adaptation of those methods to different text genres and target populations report promising results, thus offering one possible solution for dealing with the scarcity of parallel corpora for text simplification aimed at specific target populations, which is currently one of the main issues in ATS. The results of our extensive analysis of the phrase-based statistical machine translation (PB-SMT) approach to ATS reject the widespread assumption that the success of that approach largely depends on the size of the training and development datasets. They indicate more influential factors for the success of the PB-SMT approach to ATS, and reveal some important differences between cross-lingual MT and the monolingual v MT used in ATS. Our event-based system for simplifying news stories in English (EventSimplify) overcomes some of the main problems in ATS. It does not require a large number of handcrafted simplification rules nor parallel data, and it performs significant content reduction. The automatic and human evaluations conducted show that it produces grammatical text and increases readability, preserving and simplifying relevant content and reducing irrelevant content. Finally, this thesis addresses another important issue in TS which is how to automatically evaluate the performance of TS systems given that access to the target users might be difficult. Our experiments indicate that existing readability metrics can successfully be used for this task when enriched with human evaluation of grammaticality and preservation of meaning.

This paper presents a framework for literacy skill development relating to both monolingual and dual language learners. The purpose of this study was to identify the differences that may exist between monolingual and dual language learners' performance on literacy tasks, before having a significant amount of exposure to the preschool curriculum. The sample included 78 monolingual language learners and 44 dual language learners who were assessed using the Woodcock Language Proficiency Battery-Revised (WLPB-R). The researcher used scoring methods that took into consideration split vocabulary in dual language learners where a conceptual scoring technique was used (Bedore, Pena, Garcia, & Cortez, 2005). The research design employed was casual comparative where the effects of dual language learning on letter knowledge, concepts of print, vocabulary, listening comprehension, and broad language development were investigated. Findings from two Multivariate Analysis of Variances indicated that there were significant differences between monolingual and dual language learners on early language and literacy skills. This study contributes to the literature regarding dual language development and the use of appropriate scoring methods. Particularly, the outcomes from this study provide guidance regarding best practices for assessment of dual language learners to identify learning and language difficulties.