Humans perform complex sensorimotor tasks, such as walking on uneven terrain, in a seemingly effortless manner. However, even simple voluntary tasks, like lifting the arm to shake hands, require intricate adjustments to maintain balance. With experience, humans learn to produce the appropriate patterns of muscle activity necessary to maintain balance during everyday activities, as well as highly specialized motor tasks. Here, I investigated the neural feedback mechanisms controlling the formation of the muscle activity used during balance tasks. I hypothesized that humans use feedback from on-going balance perturbations to establish their muscular responses. Specifically, I investigated center-of-mass (CoM) kinematics as a control signal for the formation of these muscle activation patterns. Using an inverted pendulum model under delayed feedback control, I both reconstructed the temporal EMG patterns measured during experimental perturbations and predicted the optimal EMG patterns for responding to the same perturbations. By modulating four feedback parameters, this feedback law accounted for 91% of the variability in all experimentally-recorded EMG patterns - regardless of the mechanical action of the muscle or the response strategy chosen by the subject. To investigate the changes in postural control during motor learning, I used this feedback model to characterize responses while naïve subjects adapted to repetitive unidirectional and reversing perturbations. By adjusting feedback gains related to CoM velocity and displacement, subjects adapted their muscle activity to improve control over the CoM for both perturbation types. Though subjects were unable to use anticipatory strategies to reduce muscle onset latency or to mute inappropriate responses to reversing perturbations, more subtle feedforward adjustments to feedback-mediated postural responses were evident. With experience, subjects adapted their postural responses toward the optimal solution. The results of this work, when combined with on-going studies of muscle synergies, will provide a powerful tool for investigating the consequences that result from the changes in spatiotemporal muscle activity associated with aging, neurological dysfunction, musculoskeletal injury, and specialized training programs. This quantitative knowledge is critical to the development of diagnostic tools for balance and movement disorders, as well as for the design of effective interventional therapies, bipedal robots, and neural prostheses.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-12T17:32:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 resumo ANAMARIA.pdf: 111799 bytes, checksum: 1fd65c3285e10d1c7098ccfa70716c7e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-07-20 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Background. Training aimed at restoring and / or improving motor impairments after a spinal cord injury have shown importance in the neurofunctional rehabilitation process, as well as the relationship with biochemical markers involved in neuroplasticity. Objective. verify the effects of two training protocols in sensorimotor recovery and neural plasticity in an experimental model of incomplete LME Methods: 32 adult Wistar rats divided into four groups: Sham, NT, BCT and GT, subject to weekly reviews of locomotor and sensory-motor recovery of the hind limbs. Brain structures and lumbar spinal cord were dissected and processed for biochemical analysis quantification of the expression of BDNF, MAP-2 and Synaptophysin. Results: In the motor cortex, for synaptophysin the NT showed lower rates compared to the sham group. The BCT showed higher rates compared to the GT and NT group. For MAP-2 NT showed lower rates compared to the sham group and BCT showed higher rates compared to the NT group. For BDNF, BCT and GT groups showed higher rates compared to the NT and SHAM group. In the cerebellum for synaptophysin GT group showed higher rates compared to the NT and SHAM group, BCT showed higher rates compared to the NT. For MAP-2 the BCT group showed higher rates compared to the NT. In the SC, for synaptophysin the NT, BCT and GT showed lower rates compared to the sham group.Conclusions. Gait training played key role in sensory-motor recovery of the hind limbs. And both training modulate synaptic and structural proteins, playing an important role in exercise dependent plasticity after experimental spinal cord injury. / O treinamento motor tem sido utilizado para restabelecer e/ou melhorar deficiências após uma lesão medular e têm mostrado importância no processo de reabilitação neurofuncional, bem como a sua relação com os marcadores bioquímicos envolvidos na neuroplasticidade. Objetivo: verificar os efeitos de dois protocolos de treinamento na recuperação funcional e plasticidade neural em um modelo lesão medular incompleta. Métodos: 32 ratas Wistar adultos divididos em quatro grupos: Controle da lesão (Sham), Não-treinado (NT), Balance and coordenation trainning (BCT) e o grupo gait trainning (GT), sujeitos a avaliações semanais de recuperação locomotora e coordenação sensório-motora dos membros posteriores. O córtex motor, cerebelo e medula espinal lombar foram dissecados e processados para análise da quantificação bioquímica da expressão do BDNF, MAP-2 e sinaptofisina. Resultados: No córtex motor, para sinaptofisina o NT mostrou valores menores em comparação com o grupo Sham. O BCT mostraram níveis mais elevadas em comparação com o grupo GT e NT. Para MAP-2, NT mostrou menores níveis em comparação com o grupo Sham e BCT mostraram níveis mais elevados em comparação com o grupo NT. Para BDNF, grupos BCT e GT mostraram maiores níveis em comparação ao grupo SHAM e NT. No cerebelo para sinaptofisina, o grupo GT mostrou maiores níveis em comparação com o grupo NT e SHAM, BCT mostrou taxas mais elevadas em comparação com o NT. Para MAP-2 do grupo BCT mostraram taxas mais elevadas em comparação com o NT. Na medula, para sinaptofisina o NT, BCT e GT mostraram menores em comparação com os grupo Sham. Conclusão: Treino de marcha exerceu papel fundamental na recuperação sensório-motora dos membros posteriores. E ambos os treinamentos modularam a expressão de proteínas sinápticas e estruturais, desempenhando um importante papel na plasticidade exercício-dependente após lesão medular experimental.

Thesis (DEd (Education))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2017. / This study investigates the impact of a Gross Motor Development (GMD) programme on the lives of learners in marginalized multi-grade environments in rural areas of the Western Cape. Numerous studies globally suggest that gross motor development programmes bring stability, positive motivational changes and structure in learners’ lives constrained by challenging socio-economic environments (Portela, 2007, & Lopes et al., 2013). A transformative research paradigm was employed in order to address the research questions posed by this study. A purposive sampling technique was used to collect data from three schools, one in each of three Western Cape rural educational districts that border the Cape Metro; West Coast/Hopefield, Cape Winelands/Wellington and Overberg/Grabouw. In all three schools the Centre for Multi-grade Education had an academic research/training and support partnership. Within a trans-current mixed method design, qualitative data are used to substantiate and augment phenomena exposed by the quantitative data. The data in the qualitative phase of this study are collected using observations, reflective journals and journal notes. The research investigated the influence of an 18-month gross motor development programme on learners’ lives in three multi-grade schools in the Western Cape of South Africa. A sample of 50 (N=30 males and N=20 females), grade 4-6 multi-grade learners participated in the study. The gross motor skills were assessed using Project 4 – IMAD+ Test Battery, previously developed by the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Centre for Multi-grade Education. The test battery consisted of a series of physical exercises designed to assess gross motor proficiency. The scholastic achievement of learners was understood from the Annual National Assessment scores (ANA) of 2013.The data revealed that a total gross motor ability percentage score change occurred in the sample 50 (N=30 males and N=20 females) from 32.12 % to 56.82 %, indicating a significant overall gross motor improvement of 24.7 % in an 18 month period. Improved self-esteem, positive attitudinal and motivational changes and increases in class attendance occurred among the learners. This improvement aligns itself with research that indicates that the development and improvement of motor skills through physical activity are related to positive development of self-esteem among learners (Corbin, 2002:128-145). This study contributes to the growing body of knowledge on education at rural, marginalized schools, and suggests that providing learners with the opportunity to participate in a structured programme is likely to improve motivation which will contribute toward positive scholastic achievement. It is recommended that policymakers should encourage and implement structured gross motor skills development programmes at school. Further research on the influence of GMD provincially and nationally should be encouraged.

My diploma work is aimed at verifying the methodology for assessing basic motor skills (running, long jump, overarm throwing and catching) at elementary schools according to Ms K. M. Haywood. It is a set of laboratory activities which help us assess a pupil's level of his or her motor skills. My task was either to confirm or to contradict the before mentioned methodology leading towards the level evaluation. My research took place in the third, fourth, and fifth class forms at the 3rd Elementary School in Jindřichův Hradec. The total number of participating pupils was 60. the result of my laboratory activities can serve some teachers (with regard to their personal knowledge) as a guideline for planning a sort of meaningful and appropriate teaching lessons aimed at improving pupils' skills.\\

O estudo teve como objetivo investigar, a partir de uma perspectiva de processo adaptativo em aprendizagem motora, o efeito da liberdade na escolha da resposta em diferentes momentos do processo de estabilização. A possibilidade de escolher a ordem dos componentes que compõem uma seqüência de movimentos (liberdade na escolha da resposta) tem se mostrado benéfica à aquisição de habilidades motoras. Contudo, o efeito da liberdade na escolha da resposta pode ser mediado pelo processo de estabilização funcional. Para investigar esta hipótese, 135 voluntários com média de idade de 22 (± 4,1) anos, de ambos os sexos, foram alocados a nove grupos experimentais, derivados da combinação de três condições experimentais (SEM, MED e ALT) e dois momentos da estabilização (antes e após a estabilização inicial do desempenho). A liberdade na escolha da resposta foi operacionalizada neste estudo como a possibilidade de escolher a ordem de uma seqüência de toques em sensores, em uma tarefa complexa de timing coincidente. Os resultados mostraram que não houve efeito da condição experimental do início da prática no desempenho na fase de adaptação, porém condições intermediárias de liberdade de escolha no final da prática não apresentaram queda na consistência frente à modificação da tarefa. Nesse sentido, a liberdade na escolha da resposta não trouxe prejuízos à adaptação / The objective of the study was to investigate, from an adaptive process perspective on motor learning, the effect of freedom in response choice in different moments of the stabilization process. The possibility of choosing the order of the components which generate a movement sequence (freedom in response choice) has been shown as beneficial to motor skills acquisition. However, the effect of freedom in response choice could be mediated by the process of functional stabilization. To investigate the hypothesis, a hundred thirty-five volunteers with mean age of 22 (± 4,1) years were assigned to nine experimental groups, derived from the combination of three experimental conditions (SEM, MED and ALT) and two moments of stabilization (before and after initial performance stabilization). Freedom in response choice was manipulated in this study as the possibility of choosing the order of tapping a sequence of sensors, in a complex anticipation timing task. Results showed there was no effect of experimental condition in the beginning of practice in performance in adaptation phase, although intermediate conditions of freddom of choice didnt show decrease in consistency following task modification. In this sense, freedom in response choice wasnt detrimental to adaptation

Made available in DSpace on 2014-07-29T15:08:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Capas.pdf: 96877 bytes, checksum: e977ec105e31fdc80abe54bac72c2e5b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-09-05 / Os Acidentes Vasculares Encefálicos (AVE) representam, atualmente, a principal causa de incapacidades neurológicas e uma das doenças com maior índice de mortalidade e morbidade do mundo moderno. Entre os prejuízos que esta patologia provoca, se destaca a hemiplegia, distúrbio do movimento que limita ou impede a utilização do hemicorpo plégico em atividades funcionais. As estratégias utilizadas atualmente para a reabilitação de indivíduos hemiplégicos baseiam-se nos conceitos de neuroplasticidade e aprendizado motor, e têm por objetivo influenciar a capacidade do cérebro de reagir a estímulos organizados com alterações de sua estrutura e função. Dentre os métodos de tratamento utilizados na reabilitação da hemiplegia, a Realidade Virtual (RV) vem se destacando como ferramenta de apoio ao tratamento, já que os Sistemas de RV permitem, ao paciente, experimentar a prática intensiva e sistematizada de movimentos em um ambiente interativo, motivante, desafiador e lúdico, além de possibilitarem ao terapeuta, a adequação do grau de dificuldade das tarefas e a avaliação objetiva dos ganhos obtidos. Neste contexto, este trabalho tem como objetivo identificar se um programa de reabilitação utilizando o sistema de Realidade Virtual não imersiva denominado SisTeV (Sistema de Terapia Virtual para Membros Superiores) provocaria variações nas características do movimento realizado pelo membro superior de indivíduos hemiparéticos em decorrência do AVE. Buscou-se identificar também se os ganhos de desempenho motor, advindos do treinamento, seriam generalizados para situações do cotidiano destes indivíduos. Estudaram-se também alternativas para sugerir possíveis mudanças na arquitetura dos ambientes do SisTeV. Para tanto, foram selecionados como sujeitos da pesquisa, cinco indivíduos hemiparéticos (amostragem não probabilística do tipo intencional), pacientes do Centro de Reabilitação e Readaptação Dr. Henrique Santillo (CRER), que se encontravam em fase crônica de evolução do AVE. Os mesmos participaram de 12 sessões de 45 minutos de treinamento com o SisTeV, em um período de 12 dias consecutivos, com folgas aos domingos. Estes pacientes foram previamente avaliados com o Teste da Função Manual de Jebsen, com a análise de movimentos por cinemetria, durante a execução de um dos exercícios do SisTeV, por parâmetros do próprio sistema e por meio de entrevista. Nos resultados obtidos não houve uma uniformidade dos tempos encontrados com o Teste de Jebsen. Um melhor desempenho na realização dos exercícios feitos nos ambientes do SisTeV foi observado. Alterações das variáveis cinemáticas, identificadas na análise de movimento, sugerem que ocorreu melhora do controle motor após o treinamento, mas a amostragem reduzida não permite extrapolações. As respostas colhidas com as entrevistas sinalizam para a possibilidade de generalização dos ganhos. Sugestões de modificações na arquitetura dos ambientes do SisTeV também foram descritas

Made available in DSpace on 2014-08-20T13:49:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 angelicakaefer.pdf: 395526 bytes, checksum: fa5c5d2a2a4fa53dfa537189b4bacc07 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-03-26 / The relationship between extroversion-introversion personality trait and the selfcontrolled frequency of extrinsic feedback, in the learning of a sequential timing motor skill in adults was investigated in the current study. The subjects answered to the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) for the personality evaluation of. 56 citizens. University students of both genders had been selected through the EPQ and had then been submitted to a motor task that consisted of pressing computer keyboard keys, with specific space and timing sequence established by the experimenter. The experiment counted on phases of acquisition, retention and transfer. The retention and transfer phases were carried out 24 hours after the acquisition phase. The subjects were distributed in 4 groups, formed by the combination of the trace (extroversão/introversion) and frequency of KR (selfcontrolled and externally controlled). The dependent variable used in the study was the partial errors in absolute and relative timing in each block. The results indicated superior learning for the groups that had practiced in a self controlled schedule. Complementary analyses were carried out, evidencing inferior learning for the group of introverts that requested more KR at the beginning of the practice and less at the end, in relation to all the other groups. Hence, these complementary analyses demonstrated a significant interaction between personality trait and KR frequency in relation to a high or low request of KR in relative timing, that is; introverts who requested high frequency of KR learned more than introverts who requested low frequency of KR and extroverts who requested low KR frequency learned more than extroverts who requested high KR. / No presente trabalho investigou-se a relação entre o traço de personalidade extroversão-introversão e a freqüência de feedback extrínseco auto-controlado na aprendizagem de uma habilidade motora de timing seqüencial em adultos. Os sujeitos responderam ao Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) para a avaliação da personalidade. 56 sujeitos, estudantes universitários de ambos os sexos foram selecionados através do EPQ e posteriormente, foram submetidos a uma tarefa motora que consistiu em pressionar teclas do teclado numérico acoplado de um computador portátil, com uma seqüência espacial e temporal específica estabelecida pelo experimentador. O experimento contou com fases de aquisição (60 tentativas), retenção (10 tentativas) e transferência (10 tentativas). As fases de retenção e transferência foram realizadas 24 horas após a fase de aquisição. Os sujeitos foram distribuídos em 4 grupos, formados com a combinação do traço (extroversão/introversão) e a freqüência de fornecimento de CR (auto-controlado e externamente controlado). As variáveis dependentes utilizadas no estudo foram os erros parciais em timing absoluto e timing relativo obtidos em cada bloco. Os resultados apontaram aprendizagem superior para os grupos que praticaram com freqüência auto-controlada de CR em relação aos grupos que praticaram com freqüência externamente controlada. Análises complementares foram realizadas, evidenciando aprendizagem inferior para o grupo de introvertidos que solicitou mais CR no início da prática e menos no final, em relação a todos os outros grupos. Ainda, estas análises complementares evidenciaram, em timing relativo, uma significativa interação entre traço de personalidade e freqüência em relação à alta e baixa solicitação de CR, ou seja, introvertidos que solicitaram alta freqüência de CR aprenderam mais que introvertidos que solicitaram baixa freqüência de CR e, extrovertidos que solicitaram baixa freqüência de CR aprenderam mais que extrovertidos que solicitaram alta freqüência de CR

Introduction : Les enfants ayant un trouble de l‘acquisition de la coordination (TAC) éprouvent de la difficulté à apprendre des gestes moteurs, particulièrement ceux demandant de la coordination motrice. Des nombreuses études en neuroimagerie ont mis en évidence une diminution de l‘activité neuronale au niveau du cervelet, ce qui pourrait être à l‘origine des difficultés d‘apprentissage moteur chez les enfants ayant un TAC. Augmenter l‘activité neuronale au niveau du cervelet afin d‘améliorer l‘apprentissage et la coordination motrice pourrait être une avenue prometteuse. La stimulation à courant direct (SCD) anodale permet d‘augmenter l‘activité neuronale de la région stimulée. L‘application de la SCD anodale au niveau du cervelet a montré une amélioration de l‘apprentissage moteur chez des populations en santé ou ayant des troubles neurologiques. À notre connaissance, aucune étude n‘a évalué l‘efficacité de l‘application de la SCD sur l‘apprentissage moteur des enfants ayant un TAC. Objectif : Ce projet vise à évaluer l‘efficacité de la SCD anodale appliquée au niveau du cervelet sur l‘apprentissage moteur et la coordination motrice du membre supérieur des enfants ayant un TAC. Méthodologie : Une étude expérimentale à devis avant-après avec un groupe témoin équivalent a été réalisée. Dix-neuf enfants âgés entre 10 et 17 ans ont été randomisés dans un des deux groupes (stimulation active ou stimulation placebo). Durant trois sessions, les participants ont reçu un courant anodal (de 2mA ou placebo) au niveau du cervelet. La stimulation a été effectuée durant 20 minutes pendant que les enfants réalisaient simultanément une tâche de pianotage sur le clavier d‘un ordinateur. Cette tâche, appelée « Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT) », permet de mesurer la vitesse de réponse et le taux d‘erreur, lesquels ont été utilisés pour évaluer l‘apprentissage moteur. La coordination motrice du membre supérieur a été évaluée par le test doigt-nez (TDN) avant et après chaque application de la SCD. Résultats : L‘application de la SCD n‘a pas eu effet statistiquement significatif sur l‘apprentissage moteur, bien qu‘une tendance ait été observé quant à la réduction du taux d‘erreur pour le groupe actif par rapport au groupe placebo (p=0.072). Aucune différence statistiquement significative n‘a été observée pour la vitesse de réponse et la coordination motrice entre les 2 groupes. Conclusion : La SCD anodale pourrait potentiellement améliorer l‘apprentissage moteur chez les enfants ayant un TAC, particulièrement en regard de la diminution du taux d‘erreur. Cependant, plus de recherches sont nécessaires afin d‘explorer si la SCD pourrait être un outil ayant un potentiel thérapeutique intéressant pour bonifier l‘efficacité des interventions visant l‘apprentissage moteur des enfants ayant un TAC. / Abstract : Introduction: Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) have difficulties learning motor tasks, especially for the ones requiring motor coordination. Numerous neuroimaging studies demonstrated a decrease in neuronal activity in the cerebellum, what might be responsible for motor learning difficulties in children with DCD. Increasing neuronal activity in the cerebellum might be an interesting avenue to improve learning and motor coordination. Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (a-tDCS) has been shown to increase neuronal activity of the stimulated region, and to improve motor learning in healthy adults or patients with neurological disorders. To our knowledge, no study has assessed the tDCS effectiveness on motor learning for children with DCD. Objective: The present study evaluates the effect of cerebellar a-tDCS application on the motor learning and upper limb coordination of children with DCD. Methods: A pre-post experimental study with an equivalent control group was performed. Nineteen children aged 10-17 years were randomized in one of the two groups (active or placebo stimulation). During three sessions, participants received an anodal stimulation (2mA or placebo) on the cerebellum. The stimulation was carried out for 20 minutes while children simultaneously performed the Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT), used to document motor learning through response speed and error rate. The motor coordination of the upper limb was evaluated by the finger-nose test (FNT) before and after each tDCS session. Results: The cerebellar a-tDCS could not significantly improve motor learning but a clinical reduction on error rate for the active group versus placebo group (p=0.072). The tDCS application did not show significantly improvement on speed and motor coordination between two groups. Conclusion: The a-tDCS could potentially improve motor learning by decreasing the error rate of children with DCD. However, more researches are needed to explore if the tDCS could be an interesting therapeutic tool to improve the effectiveness of motor learning interventions for children with DCD.

Although fine motor performance declines with increasing age, older adults are able to improve their performance with motor practice. However, existing studies show mixed results regarding an effect of age on the amount of learning. Moreover, less is known about how age- and learning dependent behavioral changes are reflected on a neurophysiological level. Alpha and, especially, beta power assessed using electroencephalography (EEG) represent reliable markers of neurophysiological processes during motor task performance that need more attention in aging literature. Moreover, acute cardiovascular exercise has been shown to improve motor performance and trigger motor learning processes in young adults. However, this promising approach has not been considered in aging literature so far. Furthermore, the physical fitness level seems to be positively associated with motor performance and motor learning processes. But again, less is known about this association in healthy older adults. Both approaches might help to better understand or even counteract age-related changes in fine motor performance and motor learning. To explore these research topics, two empirical studies were conducted within this dissertation project. In both studies, motor performance and motor learning were assessed on a behavioral level using a precision grip force modulation task. The force modulation task required participants to match a visually presented sinusoidal target force by applying isometric force with the thumb and index finger to a force plate. Processes on a neurophysiological level were measured with an EEG and analyzed with a main focus on (alpha and) beta power. Study 1 aimed to further characterize age-related differences in fine motor performance and motor learning on a behavioral and neurophysiological level. Furthermore, key influencing factors that determine fine motor performance and motor learning in older adults on a behavioral level were investigated. Hence, a sample of young adults and older adults performed a short-term motor learning session, conducted a cardiovascular fitness test, motor fitness tests, and strengths tests. Study 2 focused on the effects of a session of acute exercise on fine motor performance and motor learning in a sample of healthy older adults. Participants were assigned to an experimental group (performing a session of acute cardiovascular moderate intensity exercise on a stationary bicycle) or a control group (listening to an audiobook). Both groups performed a motor learning experiment over two consecutive days. Young adults outperformed older adults in terms of performance variability, temporal precision, and force precision in the force modulation task. The lower behavioral performance was accompanied by higher beta activity in parietal and occipital areas. Although results were different with respect to the analyzed parameter, overall, the amount of motor learning in the force modulation task was not diminished in older adults compared to young adults. Beta power during motor performance was not affected by motor practice. However, beta power at rest increased from pre practice to post practice, especially in older adults. Fine motor performance of older adults was increased more directly after an acute cardiovascular exercise session than after rest. Moreover, frontal beta activity was higher directly after exercise, pointing to better cognitive resources to perform the task after exercise than after rest. Third, a high cardiovascular fitness level predicted a good fine motor performance in the force modulation task in older adults. Findings of the current dissertation project enhance the understanding of age-related changes in fine motor performance and motor learning using a precision grip force modulation task. Furthermore, approaches are presented that counteract age-related changes, improve motor functions, and determine good levels of fine motor performance in healthy older adults.

Title: Difference in the efficiency of heavy puck and light puck training in midget male ice hockey players Objectives: The aim of this thesis is to compare the training efficiency of heavy and light puck forehand shooting in groups with different skill levels with focus on short- hand shooting, long-hand shooting and wrist-shooting in midget male ice hockey players. Methods: Intervention experiment method was used to perform this work, in which two tested groups were compared by ANOVA analysis. The significance of change was determined by Cohen's d parameter. The two tested groups consisted of 16 midget male ice hockey players of SK Černošice ice hockey club. The study consists of three measurements of shot speed, shot accuracy and handgrip strength measured before and after the first six-week training cycle and at the end of second six-week training cycle. The shooting training was performed by long swing, short swing and wrist-shot technique using heavy-weight and light-weight pucks. These pucks were used in specific shooting training drills. Results: Skill-wise technically better equipped players (starting with heavy weight puck program) reported bigger improvement in long swing, short swing and wrist- shot shot speed and accuracy after heavy-weight puck training program than after light-weight...