Class of 2015 Abstract / Objectives: The goals of this study were to determine how frequently azithromycin and moxifloxacin were used in combination with other drugs that cause QTc prolongation, describe the effects these combinations have on QTc interval length, determine the incidence of QTc prolongation in patients on these medication combinations, and identify risk factors associated with QTc interval prolongations in patients on these medication combinations. Methods: A retrospective chart review was performed on patients who received at least two doses of azithromycin or moxifloxacin. It was noted whether these patients received other medications that prolonged the QTc interval. ECG information was grouped into daily phases depending on whether the patient was at baseline, receiving antibiotic therapy, QTc prolonging medication therapy, or concomitant therapy. These data were compared using a repeated measures ANOVA. Results: Patients received concomitant antibiotic-QTc prolong medication therapy in 70% of cases analyzed. In all patients on concomitant therapy there was no significant difference in any measured ECG data (all p-values > 0.26). In those who were on azithromycin and experienced QTc prolongation there was a significant difference in RR interval length (p=0.034). In those that experienced QTc prolongation on moxifloxacin there was a significant difference in QT (p=0.0033) and QTcF (p=0.0089) length. Conclusions: These medication combinations are used frequently in the hospital. These medications may not increase the QTc interval length in the general population but more research is warranted in this area to confirm this finding.

Thesis (doctoral)--Universität, Giessen, 2004.

Universiẗat, Diss., 2004--Gießen. / Zsfassung in dt. und engl. Sprache.

Clostridium difficile is an increasingly common cause of nosocomial infection. C. difficile infection (CDI) presents as a spectrum ranging from asymptomatic carriage to mild diarrhoea, pseudomembranous colitis, toxic megacolon and intestinal perforation. It is not yet fully understood why this spectrum is seen, however, it is believed that the immune response mounted by an individual plays an important role in determining the outcome of infection. This thesis comprises three studies. Firstly, a comparative study of immune cell populations within the lamina propria of colonic tissue not exhibiting pathological changes and taken from individuals with symptomatic CDI (cases); asymptomatic carriers; and non-colonised controls. Effector T cells, B cells, plasma cells and macrophages were enumerated by means of immunohistochemical staining of tissue sections. Secondly, a study to establish the prevalence within these three study groups of specific host single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the TLR2, TLR5 and IL-8 genes by PCR genotyping and to determine whether an association existed between these genotypes and susceptibility to CDI. Thirdly, an examination of the mechanisms of moxifloxacin resistance in a collection of clinical isolates. This study also sought to determine whether the competitive advantage conferred by resistance to moxifloxacin influenced the fitness of C. difficile isolates, in particular growth and the expression of the virulence factors toxins A and B. Carriers were found to have fewer of all four immune cell types quantified than both cases and controls. However, in only one instance, that of plasma cells, was this difference statistically significant. Cases had fewer of all cell types than controls but these differences were not significant. These findings suggest that individuals who become infected, both symptomatically and asymptomatically, with C. difficile display altered mucosal immune cell populations when compared with those of uninfected individuals. The data regarding host polymorphisms are suggestive of an association between the presence of SNPs and increased susceptibility to CDI. The variant IL-8 and TLR2 genotypes were carried by cases and carriers while the variant TLR5 genotype was carried by cases only. No variant genotypes were present in control subjects. All moxifloxacin resistant isolates characterised in this study, with the exception of an isolate with intermediate resistance and a third-generation mutant with reduced susceptibility, carried the common gyrA mutation ACT→ATT (Thr82→Ile). Efflux pumps are known to play a role in multi-drug resistance in many bacterial species. Semiquantitative PCR analysis of expression of the putative efflux pumps cme and cdeA found no correlation between overexpression and moxifloxacin resistance, suggesting that these genes do not play a role. Three novel mutations in the putative promoter region of CD3197, a MerR family transcriptional regulator found immediately upstream of cme, were identified. No association between the presence of these mutations and overexpression of cme or resistance or sensitivity to moxifloxacin was found. The competitive advantage conferred by resistance to moxifloxacin does not influence the fitness of C. difficile isolates, as measured in terms of growth and toxin production.

Moxifloxacin is considered to be a broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone due to its activity against both gram positive and gram negative bacteria. Importantly this agent is currently being evaluated in ongoing clinical trials in South Africa and South America as a treatment for Moxifloxacin is considered to be a broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone due to its activity against both gram positive and gram negative bacteria. Importantly this agent is currently being evaluated in ongoing clinical trials in South Africa and South America as a treatment for pulmonary tuberculosis, with the specific objective of decreasing the duration of chemotherapy. However, relatively little is known about the effects of moxifloxacin on host defenses, particularly innate protective mechanisms, involving neutrophils. The primary theme of the laboratory research presented in this dissertation was to investigate the role of moxifloxacin in modulating the host immune system, specifically neutrophil protective functions, as well as lymphocyte proliferation and cytokine production (IL-1, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-10, IL-12, IL13, IL-17, IFN-γ, GM-CSF, G-CSF, TNF-α, and MCP-1). The generation of reactive oxidants and elastase release by neutrophils activated with the chemoattractant, fMLP, or the phorbol ester, PMA, were assayed using luminol- and lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence (LECL) and colorimetric procedures, while alterations in cytosolic Ca2+ concentrations were monitored by radiometric (45Ca2+) procedures. Moxifloxacin (1-20 ㎍/ml) was found to have no significant priming or inhibitory effects on oxidant generation by human neutrophils activated with fMLP or PMA, while elastase release was increased at the highest concentrations of the antibiotic. The magnitude of efflux or store-operated Ca2+ influx was unaffected following activation of neutrophils with fMLP. Moxifloxacin at all concentrations tested, did not affect either lymphocyte proliferation or CD25 expression by PHA-activated mononuclear leukocytes (MNLs). Similarly, none of the cytokines measured were significantly affected by moxifloxacin, either in the absence or presence of PHA, compatible with a lack of effect of this agent on Th1 and Th2 lymphocytes. In conclusion, this study suggests that moxifloxacin, at therapeutic doses, does not affect the protective functions of human neutrophils and lymphocytes. / Dissertation (MSc (Medical Immunology))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Immunology / unrestricted

Background: Moxifloxacin is a new fourth-generation 8-methoxy fluoroquinolone developed primarily for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia and upper respiratory tract infections. The aim of the study was to investigate the plasma pharmacokinetics characteristic of moxifloxacin in calves, after intravenous, intramuscular and subcutaneous administration of a single dose. Meanwhile, plasma protein binding and bioavailability of moxifloxacin were also estimated. Methods: Plasma concentrations of moxifloxacin were measured using a modified HPLC method, and the extent of plasma protein binding was determined in vitro using ultrafiltration. Results: Following intravenous administration, the half life of elimination, the volume of distribution at steady state and the area under the curve were 3.29 h, 0.94 l/kg and 24.72 μg·h/ml, respectively. After intramuscular and subcutaneous administration of moxifloxacin at the same dose, the peak plasma concentrations were 2.41 and 2.20 μg/ml and were obtained at 1.54 and 1.59 h, respectively. The systemic bioavailabilities were 87.19 and 75.94%, respectively. The in vitro plasma protein binding of moxifloxacin in plasma of calves was 27%. Conclusion: A high peak plasma concentration, area under the curve, rapid absorption and bioavailability following intramuscular and subcutaneous administration characterize the pharmacokinetics of moxifloxacin in calves.

Dialysepflichtige Patienten haben ein erhöhtes Risiko für eine ambulant erworbene Pneumonie. Aufgrund der Niereninsuffizienz und der daraus resultierenden geänderten Metabolisierung von Medikamenten und dem Vorliegen von Komorbiditäten ist es von großer Bedeutung, eine geeignete medikamentöse Therapie zu finden, die sicher und effektiv in der Behandlung ist. In der durchgeführten Untersuchung wurden die Wirksamkeit, Verträglichkeit und die Pharmakokinetik von Moxifloxacin bei dialysepflichtigen Patienten geprüft, die eine ambulant erworbene oder eine innerhalb von 5 Tagen nach stationärer Aufnahme aufgetretene Pneumonie erworben hatten. Die Pharmakokinetik sollte prüfen, ob eine Dosisanpassung oder eine Änderung des Dosisintervalls bei dialysepflichtigen Patienten erforderlich ist. Es wurden in der Studie 21 Patienten untersucht, die nach dem Studienprotokoll behandelt wurden. Zwölf der Patienten hatten eine terminale Niereninsuffizienz, bei neun bestand ein akutes Nierenversagen. 81% der Patienten erreichten eine komplette Remission. Die mikrobiologischen Erreger waren sowohl grampositive als auch gramnegative Keime. Die mittels HPLC erhobenen pharmakokinetischen Daten zeigten keinen signifikanten Unterschied zwischen den Daten von Nierengesunden und Dialysepatienten. Die Spitzenkonzentrationen von Moxifloxacin waren mit 5 mg/L bei Dialysepatienten im Bereich der Maximalspiegel von Nierengesunden. Dasselbe gilt für die Talspiegel nach 24 h, die sich zwischen 1,3 - 1,5 mg/L bewegten. Eine deutliche Kumulation von Moxifloxacin wurde nicht beobachtet. Die Pharmakokinetik bei den Studienteilnehmern ergab eine geschätzte orale Bioverfügbarkeit von 85 %, die nur geringfügig niedriger war als bei Nierengesunden. Die maximalen Plasmakonzentrationen, die area under the curve und die Halbwertszeiten waren während der Dialyse moderat höher im Vergleich zu Werten von Nierengesunden. Die klinische und mikrobiologische Wirksamkeit war gut. Aus der Studie kann abgeleitet werden, dass eine Behandlung mit Moxifloxacin bei niereninsuffizienten Patienten eine wirksame und sichere Therapieoption darstellt und eine Dosisänderung oder Anpassung des Dosierungsintervalls nicht erforderlich ist.

Yes / Mutations in the gyrase genes cause fluoroquinolone resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. However, the predictive value of these markers for clinical outcomes in patients with MDR-TB is unknown to date. The objective of this study was to determine molecular markers and breakpoints predicting second-line treatment outcomes in M. tuberculosis patients treated with fourth-generation fluoroquinolones. We analysed treatment outcome data in relation to the gyrA and gyrB sequences and MICs of ofloxacin, gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin for pretreatment M. tuberculosis isolates from 181 MDR-TB patients in Bangladesh whose isolates were susceptible to injectable drugs. The gyrA 90Val, 94Gly and 94Ala mutations were most frequent, with the highest resistance levels for 94Gly mutants. Increased pretreatment resistance levels (>2 mg/L), related to specific mutations, were associated with lower cure percentages, with no cure in patients whose isolates were resistant to gatifloxacin at 4 mg/L. Any gyrA 94 mutation, except 94Ala, predicted a significantly lower proportion of cure compared with all other gyrA mutations taken together (all non-94 mutants + 94Ala) [OR = 4.3 (95% CI 1.4-13.0)]. The difference in treatment outcome was not explained by resistance to the other drugs. Our study suggests that gyrA mutations at position 94, other than Ala, predict high-level resistance to gatifloxacin and moxifloxacin, as well as poor treatment outcome, in MDR-TB patients in whom an injectable agent is still effective.

La tesis doctoral esta compuesta por 10 artículos, con sus correspondientes 10 resúmenes. En todos los casos que fue posible, se realizó un estudio cruzado y el método de determinación de todas las quinolonas fue cromatografía liquida de alta resolución (HPLC) con un detector de fluorescencia:1. El objetivo fue estudiar la farmacocinética de difloxacino (5 mg/kg) en el caballo (n=6). Difloxacino puede ser efectivo para el tratamiento de infecciones por bacterias sensibles en caballos.2. El objetivo fue estudiar la farmacocinética de danofloxacino en el caballo (n=6), a dosis de 1.25 mg/kg. Danofloxacino en caballos puede ser efectivo para el tratamiento de infecciones por bacterias sensibles.3. La farmacocinética de moxifloxacino en el conejo (n=6) fue evaluada. Moxifloxacino puede ser efectivo en conejos.4. El comportamiento farmacocinético de ibafloxacino (15 mg/kg) fue estudiado en cabras lactantes. La penetración de ibafloxacino desde la sangre a la leche fue pobre. 5. La farmacocinética de difloxacino fue estudiada en cabras lactantes (n=6), a dosis de 5 mg/kg. La penetración de difloxacino desde el plasma a la leche fue amplia y rápida. 6. La farmacocinética/farmacodinámica de danofloxacino fue estudiada en conejos (n=6), a dosis de 6 mg/kg. No se recomienda el uso de danofloxacino en el conejo, contra las cepas de Staphylococcus aureus testadas en este estudio, por el riesgo de aparición de resistencias. 7. Se ha desarrollado un método de cromatografía liquida de alta resolución con detector de fluorescencia simple, rápido y sensible para la determinación de ibafloxacino en plasma de conejo. 8. La farmacocinética de difloxacino fue estudiada en ovejas (n=6), a dosis de 5 mg/kg. Difloxacino puede ser efectivo en las ovejas.9. La farmacocinética de orbifloxacino fue estudiada en cabras lactantes (n=6), a dosis de 2.5 mg/kg. La penetración de orbifloxacino en la leche fue rápida, alcanzando altas concentraciones. 10. La farmacocinética/farmacodinámica de orbifloxacino fue estudiada en conejos (n=6), a dosis de 5 mg/kg. No se recomienda el uso de orbifloxacino,contra las cepas de Staphylococcus aureus testadas en este estudio, por el riesgo de aparición de resistencias. / The present PhD work is composed of 10 manuscripts and 10 summaries: 1. The pharmacokinetics of difloxacin (5 mg/kg) were determined in healthy horses (n=6). Difloxacin in horses indicate that it is likely to be effective for treating sensitive equine bacterial infections.2. The pharmacokinetics of danofloxacin (1.25 mg/kg) were determined in healthy horses (n=6). Danofloxacin in horses indicate that it is likely to be effective for treating sensitive equine bacterial infections.3. The pharmacokinetics (PK) of moxifloxacin in healthy white New Zealand rabbits was studied. The favourable PK parameters indicate that it is likely to be effective in rabbits.4. The pharmacokinetic behavior of ibafloxacin was studied (15 mg/kg) to 6 healthy lactating goats. Ibafloxacin penetration from the blood to the milk was poor. 5. The single-dose disposition kinetics of difloxacin (5 mg/kg) were determined in clinically normal lactating goats (n = 6). Difloxacin penetration from the blood into the milk was extensive and rapid.6. The pharmacokinetics of danofloxacin (6 mg/kg) was studied in healthy rabbits. In consideration of the low AUC/MIC indices obtained, its use cannot be recommended given the risk for selection of first mutant subpopulations.7. A simple, rapid, and sensitive high-performance liquid chromatographic method is developed for the determination of ibafloxacin in rabbit plasma..8. The disposition kinetics of difloxacin, a fluoroquinolone antibiotic, were determined in sheep at a single dose of 5mg/kg. Difloxacin is likely to be effective in sheep.9. The single-dose disposition kinetics of orbifloxacin (2.5 mg/kg) were determined in clinically normal lactating goats (n = 6). Orbifloxacin penetration from the blood into the milk was rapid and showed high levels of concentrations in milk secretion. 10. The single-dose disposition kinetics of orbifloxacin (5 mg/kg) were determined in clinically normal rabbits (n=6). Its use against the S. aureus strains assayed in this study cannot be recommended given the risk of selection of resistant populations.

Objetivo: O objetivo geral deste trabalho foi desenvolver um modelo farmacocinético/farmacodinâmico (PK/PD) para descrever o efeito bactericida in vitro das fluoroquinolonas levofloxacino (LEV) e moxifloxacino (MXF)contra Escherichia coli, baseando-se em dados in vivo de concentração livre prostática. Métodos: Ratos Wistar machos foram utilizados nos experimentos in vivo para determinação da farmacocinética plasmática e prostática do LEV (7 mg/kg) e MXF (6 e 12 mg/kg) após dose i.v. bolus. As concentrações livres prostáticas foram determinadas por microdiálise. A coleta das amostras de plasma e dialisado de tecido foi realizada simultaneamente nos animais previamente anestesiados com uretano para determinação do fator de distribuição tecidual (fT). Para a quantificação do LEV e MXF nas amostras de plasma e dialisado, métodos analíticos foram validados. Análise farmacocinética não-compartimental e modelagem compartimental dos dados foram realizadas utilizando o WinNonlin® e NONMEM® v. 6, respectivamente. Os experimentos de farmacodinâmica in vitro foram executados utilizando sistema composto de caldo de cultura Mueller-Hinton no qual a bactéria teste (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922) foi exposta a concentrações constantes e flutuantes dos antimicrobianos. O número de colônias bacterianas viáveis (CFU/mL) foi determinado em função do tempo e utilizado como parâmetro farmacodinâmico para construção das curvas de morte bacteriana (time-kill curves). Nos experimentos de time-kill curves estáticos, concentrações baseadas em múltiplos da MIC na faixa de 0.008–2 mg/L foram utilizadas, enquanto que no dinâmico a meia-vida de eliminação do LEV em humanos foi simulada no sistema in vitro através de diluição constante do caldo de cultura. Resultados e Discussão: Um método analítico por HPLC-fluorescência foi desenvolvido e validado para a quantificação do MXF nas amostras biológicas. Método analítico também foi validado para quantificação do LEV nas amostras. Os perfis plasmáticos e teciduais das duas fluoroquinolonas foram modelados simultaneamente utilizando modelo de três compartimentos considerando transporte linear (difusão passiva) e saturável (cinética de Michaelis-Menten). O modelo, que foi o mais adequado para descrever os dados experimentais, sugere a presença de transportadores de efluxo na próstata. A penetração prostática média do MXF foi significativamente maior que a do LEV (fT = 1.24 vs. 0.78) e foi independente da dose. Em ratos, não foi observada diferença na meia-vida plasmática média entre LEV (5.0 h) e MXF (4.9 h), embora a meia-vida tecidual foi ligeiramente maior para o MXF (3.3 vs. 2.3 h). Usando a abordagem populacional de modelagem PK/PD, modelo de Emax sigmoidal foi utilizado para descrever o efeito das duas quinolonas frente a E. coli tanto nos experimentos de concentração estática quanto dinâmica. A comparação dos parâmetros PK/PD estimados mostrou que o MXF apresenta potência superior ao LEV contra a cepa através da comparação dos valores de EC50, embora ambos tenham apresentado eficácia comparável (Emax de 1.85 e 1.83 h-1 para MXF e LEV, respectivamente). Para o LEV, os esquemas posológicos de 500 mg q12 h e 1000 mg q24 h apresentaram maior eficácia no período de 24 h, pois promoveram a inibição completa do recrescimento bacteriano observado nos outros dois regimes de dose testados. Conclusões: A correlação dos dados de farmacocinéticain vivo com os experimentos de farmacodinâmica in vitro, seguida da construção do modelo PK/PD de efeito máximo, possibilitou explorar a relação do efeito antimicrobiano em função do tempo baseada em concentrações livres esperadas na prostatite. / Objective: The aim of this study was to develop a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) model to describe the in vitro bactericidal effect of the fluoroquinolones levofloxacin (LEV) and moxifloxacin (MXF) against Escherichia coli based on free concentrations in prostate tissue measured in vivo. Methods: Pharmacokinetic experiments were conducted in male Wistar rats for the determination of plasma and free prostate concentrations of LEV (7 mg/kg) and MXF (6 and 12 mg/kg) after i.v. bolus administration. Blood and tissue dialysate samples were collected simultaneously in the group of rats previously anesthetized with urethane to determine the tissue distribution factor (fT). To quantify MXF and LEV in plasma and dialysate samples obtained after administration of the quinolones, analytical methods based on HPLC-fluorescence were developed and validated accordingly. Non-compartmental analysis and compartmental PK modeling of the data was performed in WinNonlin® and NONMEM® v. 6, respectively. The in vitro pharmacodynamic experiments were executed by using a system composed of Mueller-Hinton growth medium in which the test bacterial strain (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922) was exposed to constant and fluctuating antimicrobial concentrations. The number of viable colony-forming units (CFU/mL) was determined as a function of time and used as the pharmacodynamic parameter for construction of bacterial time-kill curves. In the static time-kill curves, concentrations in the range of 0.008-2 mg/L were tested based on multiples of the MIC, whereas in the dynamic time-kill curves the half-life of LEV in humans was simulated in the in vitro system by stepwise dilution of the growth medium. Results and Discussion: An HPLC-fluorescence method was developed and fully validated to quantify MXF in biological fluids. A method was also validated to determine LEV in the samples. Plasma and prostate concentrations of both drugs were simultaneously fitted using a three-compartment model considering linear (passive diffusion) and saturable transport (Michaelis-Menten kinetics), suggesting the presence of efflux transporters in the prostate. The average tissue penetration of MXF in the prostate was significantly higher than that of LEV (fT = 1.24 vs. 0.78) and was independent of the dose. In rats, differences in average plasma half-life between plasma LEV (5.0 h) and MXF (4.9 h) were not observed, even though the tissue half-life was slightly longer for MXF (3.3 vs. 2.3 h). Using a population PK/PD modeling approach, a sigmoidal Emax model was used to describe the effect of the two quinolones against E. coli both in the static as well as in the dynamic time-kill curves. Comparison of the PK/PD parameter estimates showed that the in vitro potency of MXF is higher than LEV against the strain tested as shown by EC50 values, but both presented equivalent efficacy (Emax of 1.85 and 1.83 h-1 for MXF and LEV, respectively). For LEV, the dosing regimens of 500 mg q12 h and 1,000 mg q24 h showed overall greater efficacy over the 24 h period as they resulted in complete inhibition of bacterial regrowth observed in the other two dosing regimens tested. Conclusions: The correlation of in vivo pharmacokinetic data with in vitro pharmacodynamic experiments, followed by the development of an Emax PK/PD model, allowed determining the relationship between the bactericidal effect as a function of time based on free tissue concentrations expected in the site of infection.