RAMOS, Danilo. Fatores emocionais durante uma escuta musical afetam a percepção temporal de músicos e não músicos? 2008, 268 p. Tese (Doutorado). Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto. Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, 2008. Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo verificar o papel das emoções desencadeadas pela música na percepção temporal de músicos e não músicos. Quatro experimentos foram realizados: no Experimento I, músicos e não músicos realizaram tarefas de associações emocionais a trechos musicais de 36 segundos de duração, pertencentes ao repertório erudito ocidental. A tarefa consistia em escutar cada trecho musical e associá-lo às categorias emocionais Alegria, Serenidade, Tristeza, Medo ou Raiva. Os resultados mostraram que a maioria dos trechos musicais desencadeou uma única emoção específica nos ouvintes; além disso, as associações emocionais dos músicos foram semelhantes às associações emocionais dos não músicos para a maioria dos trechos musicais apresentados. No Experimento II, músicos e não músicos realizaram tarefas de associação temporal aos trechos musicais mais representativos de cada emoção, utilizados no Experimento I. Assim, os trechos musicais eram apresentados e os participantes deveriam associar cada um deles a durações de 16, 18, 20, 22 ou 24 segundos. Os resultados mostraram que, para o grupo Músicos, os três trechos musicais associados à Tristeza foram subestimados em relação às suas durações reais; nenhuma outra categoria emocional apresentou mais do que um trecho musical sendo subestimado ou superestimado em relação a suas durações reais, para ambos os grupos. Pesquisas recentes em Psicologia da Música têm mostrado duas propriedades estruturais como sendo moduladoras da percepção de emoções específicas durante uma escuta musical: o modo (organização das notas dentro de uma escala musical) e o andamento (número de batidas por minuto). Assim, no Experimento III, músicos e não músicos realizaram tarefas de associações emocionais a composições musicais construídas em sete modos (Jônio, Dórico, Frígio, Lídio, Mixolídio, Eólio e Lócrio) e três andamentos (adágio, moderato e presto). O procedimento foi o mesmo utilizado no Experimento I. Os resultados mostraram que o modo musical modulou a valência afetiva desencadeada pelos trechos musicais: trechos musicais apresentados em modos maiores obtiveram índices positivos de valência afetiva e trechos musicais apresentados em modos menores obtiveram índices negativos de valência afetiva; além disso, o andamento musical modulou o arousal desencadeado pelos trechos musicais: quanto mais rápido o andamento do trecho musical, maiores os níveis de arousal desencadeados e vice-versa. No Experimento IV, músicos e não músicos realizaram tarefas de associação temporal aos trechos musicais modais utilizados no Experimento III. O procedimento foi o mesmo utilizado no Experimento II. Os resultados mostraram que manipulações, principalmente no arousal, afetaram a percepção temporal dos ouvintes: para ambos os grupos, foram encontradas subestimações temporais para trechos musicais desencadeadores de baixos índices de arousal; além disso, para o grupo Não Músicos, foram encontradas superestimações temporais para trechos musicais desencadeadores de altos índices de arousal. Estes resultados mostraram que, no caso dos músicos, a percepção temporal foi afetada por atmosferas emocionais relacionadas à Tristeza; no caso dos Não Músicos, a percepção temporal foi afetada por fatores relacionados ao nível do arousal dos eventos musicais apreciados. / RAMOS, Danilo. Do emotional factors during music listening tasks affect time perception of musicians and nonmusicians? 2008, 268 pages. Thesis (PhD). Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters of Ribeirão Preto. University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, 2008. This study aimed to verify the role of emotions triggered by music on time perception of musicians and nonmusicians. Four experiments were conducted: In Experiment I, musicians and nonmusicians performed emotional association tasks for musical excerpts of 36 seconds duration belonging to the Western classic repertoire. The tasks required to listen to each musical excerpt and to associate it with emotional categories: Joy, Serenity, Sadness, or Fear/Anger. The results showed that most musical excerpts triggered a specific single emotion in listeners; moreover, the emotional associations of musicians were similar to the emotional associations of nonmusicians for most musical excerpts presented. In Experiment II, musicians and nonmusicians performed temporal association tasks for the three most representative excerpts of each emotion used in Experiment I. Thus, the participants had to associate each of such musical excerpts with the following durations: 16, 18, 20, 22 or 24 seconds. The results showed that for the musicians, the three musical excerpts associated with Sadness were underestimated in relation to their real time; moreover, no other emotional category was associated with more than one musical excerpt whether being underestimated or overestimated, regarding their real time, for both groups. Recent researches in Psychology of Music have shown two structural properties as the modulators of specific emotions perceived during a music listening task: the mode (the organization of the notes in a musical scale) and tempo (the number of beats per minute). Thus, in Experiment III, musicians and nonmusicians carried out emotional association tasks with musical compositions constructed in seven modes (Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian, and Locrian) and three tempi (adagio, moderato, and presto). The procedure was the same used in Experiment I. The results showed that the musical mode modulated the affective valence triggered by the excerpts: musical excerpts based on major modes obtained positive affective valence indexes and musical excerpts based on minor modes obtained negative affective valence indexes; moreover, the musical tempo modulated the arousal triggered by the excerpts: the faster the tempo of the musical excerpts, the higher the arousal levels and vice versa, for both groups. In Experiment IV, musicians and nonmusicians performed temporal association tasks for those modal musical excerpts used in Experiment III. The procedure was the same used in Experiment II. The results showed that manipulations concerning arousal affected the time perception of the listeners: time underestimations due to low arousal excerpts were found for both groups; moreover, time underestimations due to high arousal excerpts were found only for nonmusicians. These results showed that in the case of musicians, time perception was affected by emotional atmospheres related to Sadness; in the case of nonmusicians, time perception was affected by factors related to the level of arousal of music events appreciated.

RAMOS, Danilo. Fatores emocionais durante uma escuta musical afetam a percepção temporal de músicos e não músicos? 2008, 268 p. Tese (Doutorado). Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto. Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, 2008. Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo verificar o papel das emoções desencadeadas pela música na percepção temporal de músicos e não músicos. Quatro experimentos foram realizados: no Experimento I, músicos e não músicos realizaram tarefas de associações emocionais a trechos musicais de 36 segundos de duração, pertencentes ao repertório erudito ocidental. A tarefa consistia em escutar cada trecho musical e associá-lo às categorias emocionais Alegria, Serenidade, Tristeza, Medo ou Raiva. Os resultados mostraram que a maioria dos trechos musicais desencadeou uma única emoção específica nos ouvintes; além disso, as associações emocionais dos músicos foram semelhantes às associações emocionais dos não músicos para a maioria dos trechos musicais apresentados. No Experimento II, músicos e não músicos realizaram tarefas de associação temporal aos trechos musicais mais representativos de cada emoção, utilizados no Experimento I. Assim, os trechos musicais eram apresentados e os participantes deveriam associar cada um deles a durações de 16, 18, 20, 22 ou 24 segundos. Os resultados mostraram que, para o grupo Músicos, os três trechos musicais associados à Tristeza foram subestimados em relação às suas durações reais; nenhuma outra categoria emocional apresentou mais do que um trecho musical sendo subestimado ou superestimado em relação a suas durações reais, para ambos os grupos. Pesquisas recentes em Psicologia da Música têm mostrado duas propriedades estruturais como sendo moduladoras da percepção de emoções específicas durante uma escuta musical: o modo (organização das notas dentro de uma escala musical) e o andamento (número de batidas por minuto). Assim, no Experimento III, músicos e não músicos realizaram tarefas de associações emocionais a composições musicais construídas em sete modos (Jônio, Dórico, Frígio, Lídio, Mixolídio, Eólio e Lócrio) e três andamentos (adágio, moderato e presto). O procedimento foi o mesmo utilizado no Experimento I. Os resultados mostraram que o modo musical modulou a valência afetiva desencadeada pelos trechos musicais: trechos musicais apresentados em modos maiores obtiveram índices positivos de valência afetiva e trechos musicais apresentados em modos menores obtiveram índices negativos de valência afetiva; além disso, o andamento musical modulou o arousal desencadeado pelos trechos musicais: quanto mais rápido o andamento do trecho musical, maiores os níveis de arousal desencadeados e vice-versa. No Experimento IV, músicos e não músicos realizaram tarefas de associação temporal aos trechos musicais modais utilizados no Experimento III. O procedimento foi o mesmo utilizado no Experimento II. Os resultados mostraram que manipulações, principalmente no arousal, afetaram a percepção temporal dos ouvintes: para ambos os grupos, foram encontradas subestimações temporais para trechos musicais desencadeadores de baixos índices de arousal; além disso, para o grupo Não Músicos, foram encontradas superestimações temporais para trechos musicais desencadeadores de altos índices de arousal. Estes resultados mostraram que, no caso dos músicos, a percepção temporal foi afetada por atmosferas emocionais relacionadas à Tristeza; no caso dos Não Músicos, a percepção temporal foi afetada por fatores relacionados ao nível do arousal dos eventos musicais apreciados. / RAMOS, Danilo. Do emotional factors during music listening tasks affect time perception of musicians and nonmusicians? 2008, 268 pages. Thesis (PhD). Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters of Ribeirão Preto. University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, 2008. This study aimed to verify the role of emotions triggered by music on time perception of musicians and nonmusicians. Four experiments were conducted: In Experiment I, musicians and nonmusicians performed emotional association tasks for musical excerpts of 36 seconds duration belonging to the Western classic repertoire. The tasks required to listen to each musical excerpt and to associate it with emotional categories: Joy, Serenity, Sadness, or Fear/Anger. The results showed that most musical excerpts triggered a specific single emotion in listeners; moreover, the emotional associations of musicians were similar to the emotional associations of nonmusicians for most musical excerpts presented. In Experiment II, musicians and nonmusicians performed temporal association tasks for the three most representative excerpts of each emotion used in Experiment I. Thus, the participants had to associate each of such musical excerpts with the following durations: 16, 18, 20, 22 or 24 seconds. The results showed that for the musicians, the three musical excerpts associated with Sadness were underestimated in relation to their real time; moreover, no other emotional category was associated with more than one musical excerpt whether being underestimated or overestimated, regarding their real time, for both groups. Recent researches in Psychology of Music have shown two structural properties as the modulators of specific emotions perceived during a music listening task: the mode (the organization of the notes in a musical scale) and tempo (the number of beats per minute). Thus, in Experiment III, musicians and nonmusicians carried out emotional association tasks with musical compositions constructed in seven modes (Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian, and Locrian) and three tempi (adagio, moderato, and presto). The procedure was the same used in Experiment I. The results showed that the musical mode modulated the affective valence triggered by the excerpts: musical excerpts based on major modes obtained positive affective valence indexes and musical excerpts based on minor modes obtained negative affective valence indexes; moreover, the musical tempo modulated the arousal triggered by the excerpts: the faster the tempo of the musical excerpts, the higher the arousal levels and vice versa, for both groups. In Experiment IV, musicians and nonmusicians performed temporal association tasks for those modal musical excerpts used in Experiment III. The procedure was the same used in Experiment II. The results showed that manipulations concerning arousal affected the time perception of the listeners: time underestimations due to low arousal excerpts were found for both groups; moreover, time underestimations due to high arousal excerpts were found only for nonmusicians. These results showed that in the case of musicians, time perception was affected by emotional atmospheres related to Sadness; in the case of nonmusicians, time perception was affected by factors related to the level of arousal of music events appreciated.

No description available.

Au quotidien, nos ressources attentionnelles sont sollicitées de part et d’autre et la capacité à diriger notre attention sur une tâche et ignorer les distractions (le contrôle attentionnel) est cruciale. Pour mieux comprendre cette influence, les facteurs émotionnels pouvant moduler l’attention sont étudiés. L’omniprésence de la musique, et des émotions qu’elle induit, dans les activités quotidiennes soulève des questions quant à son effet sur cette capacité. Les résultats des études explorant l’effet de la musique de fond sur le contrôle attentionnel sont divergents, ils sont parfois nuisibles ou nuls, mais généralement bénéfiques. Il est possible que cette divergence s’explique par la diversité des caractéristiques émotionnelles (p.ex. le caractère relaxant ou stimulant) de la musique de fond utilisée dans les études. Le contrôle attentionnel peut également être modulé par les variations individuelles de l’anxiété (p.ex. des niveaux faible ou élevé de l’état et du trait d’anxiété). Considérer (a) les niveaux d’activation de la musique de fond et (b) des variations individuelles d’anxiété pourrait clarifier comment le contrôle attentionnel est influencé dans la vie quotidienne. Pour cela, deux groupes tirés d’une population adulte non-clinique ont été testés, un ayant un niveau d’état et de trait d’anxiété faible et un autre ayant un niveau d’état et de trait d’anxiété plus élevé. Tous les participants ont réalisé la tâche Flanker dans trois conditions : avec la présentation de musiques stimulantes et relaxantes, ainsi qu’en silence. Les résultats indiquent que l’effet Flanker est similaire entre les trois conditions pour le groupe à anxiété faible. En revanche, pour le groupe à anxiété plus élevée, l’effet Flanker est significativement augmenté avec la musique relaxante comparativement au silence. Ces résultats suggèrent que l’effet de l’activation de la musique de fond sur le contrôle attentionnel varie selon le niveau d’anxiété. / Daily, attentional control is solicited to maintain attention on a desired task and inhibit distractions. Knowingly, emotional factors are studied to further understand attentional modulation. With the omnipresence of music, and the emotions it induces, in daily activities, its impact on attentional control arises questioning. Studies exploring the effect of background music on attentional control have shown inconsistent results, supporting its effect is sometimes detrimental or null, but mostly beneficial. Differences in the emotional characteristics of music could possibly explain the inconsistent results shown in studies exploring the effect of emotions on attentional control. Additionally, individual variations in emotional states have been shown to impact attentional control capacities, namely variations in anxiety (low/high trait and state anxiety). Considering activation levels of music (stimulating/relaxing) and individual levels of anxiety (low/high) could clarify how attentional control is impacted in the daily life. This study aims explored the effect of (a) the activation levels of background music and (b) individual differences in anxiety on attentional control capacities using the Flanker task. To this aim, a low state-and-trait anxiety group and a high state-and-trait anxiety groups drawn form a non-clinical population were tested under three conditions: with presentation of stimulating and relaxing music, and in silence. For the low-anxiety group, the Flanker effect was similar between the three conditions. On the other hand, for the high-anxiety group, the Flanker effect was significantly increased with the relaxing background music compared to silence. These results suggest that the effect of background music activation levels on attentional control varies as a function of anxiety levels.

In this diploma thesis I deal with the issue of a musical sign. My goal is to introduce theory of musical sign, which would primarily address the question of its object. It seems that the object of the musical representation is the most problematic part of this thesis. I have based my arguments on theories of Eduard Hanslick, Susanne Langer and Felicia Kruse. Also, the emotions are heavily connected to this question. I attempt to find out if emotions may be the actual object of musical sign and what should its character be. I do so through a critical assesement of the above mentioned theories. The hypotethical outcome of this thesis such theory of musical sign which would address the dilema of musical emotions but also a paradox of composer - listener part in musical representation.

Le vieillissement normal peut être accompagné par un déclin cognitif incluant une diminution du contrôle attentionnel, une fonction exécutive nous permettant de concentrer notre attention tout en inhibant les distractions. De plus, des études antérieures ont démontré que la musique de fond peut améliorer certaines fonctions exécutives, autant chez les jeunes que chez les personnes âgées. Sachant que le vieillissement normal est caractérisé par un déclin du contrôle attentionnel qui n’est pas observé chez leurs cadets, cette étude vise à explorer si l’effet de la musique de fond sur le contrôle attentionnel est le même chez les personnes âgées et les jeunes adultes. Pour ce faire, 19 personnes âgées (62 à 74 ans) ainsi que 21 jeunes adultes (20 à 32 ans) ont effectué la tâche flanker d’Eriksen, qui évalue le contrôle attentionnel, dans trois conditions : en écoutant de la musique de fond stimulante, relaxante et en silence. Comme attendu, les temps de réaction étaient plus lents pour les essais non congruents que pour les essais congruents. Cette différence, appelée l’effet flanker, était significativement plus grande sous la condition de musique relaxante comparativement aux deux autres conditions. De plus, l’effet flanker était le même dans les deux groupes d’âge. Pour conclure, la musique relaxante nuit au contrôle attentionnel des personnes âgées et des jeunes adultes, comparativement à la musique stimulante et au silence. / Normal aging can be accompanied by a cognitive decline including a decrease in attentional control, an executive function allowing us to focus attention while inhibiting distractors. Also, previous studies demonstrated that background music can enhance some executive functions, both in young and older adults. Knowing that normal aging is characterised by a decline in attentional control that is not observed in their younger peers, this study aims to explore if the effect of background music on attentional control is the same in older and young adults. To do so, 19 older adults (62-74) as well as 21 young adults (20-32) performed the Eriksen’s flanker task, evaluating attentional control, under the exposition of three conditions: stimulating and relaxing music and silence. As expected, reaction time (RT) was slower for the incongruent trials and faster for the congruent ones. However, this difference, called the flanker effect, was significantly greater under the relaxing music condition compared to others, due to a combination of much slower RT in incongruent trials and faster RT in congruent ones. The flanker effect was the same in both age groups. In conclusion, relaxing music impairs attentional control of older and young adults compared to stimulating music and silence.

La musique a la capacité d’induire et moduler les émotions, décomposées en deux dimensions : le niveau d’activation (relaxant-stimulant) et la valence émotionnelle (déplaisant-plaisant). Une façon de mesurer objectivement la valence musicale est par le réflexe acoustique de sursaut, une réaction de défense qui consiste en un clignement de l’oeil provoqué par un bruit fort et inattendu. Le réflexe est renforcé par la musique déplaisante et inhibée par la musique plaisante. Cependant, l’effet du niveau d’activation émotionnelle lors de l’écoute musicale demeure inconnu. Cette étude a donc pour objectif d’examiner la modulation du réflexe acoustique de sursaut par la musique stimulante et relaxante jugée plaisante. Basée sur les résultats d’études antérieures avec des images, notre hypothèse était que le réflexe serait plus faible dans la condition stimulante que dans la condition relaxante. Dans un devis intrasujet, 47 participants ont écouté de la musique relaxante et stimulante. Des bruits blancs courts et forts ont été rajoutés par-dessus les extraits afin de provoquer le réflexe de sursaut, dont son amplitude et sa latence ont été mesurées par électromyographie. Les résultats ont ensuite été comparés à ceux d’une condition non-musicale, constituée de sons environnementaux plaisants, afin d’explorer si la musique est plus efficace pour inhiber le réflexe. Finalement, des caractéristiques acoustiques, telles que la clarté de la pulsation, la densité acoustique, la dissonance et l’énergie, ont été extraites puis comparées entre les trois conditions pour explorer leur relation avec les paramètres du réflexe. Les résultats rapportent une modulation de la latence du réflexe de sursaut, dans laquelle celle-ci est plus longue dans la condition stimulante comparée à la condition relaxante. Cependant, aucune différence au niveau de l’amplitude n’a été observée. Seule la latence serait donc sensible au niveau d’activation des émotions musicales lorsque la musique est plaisante. Ensuite, la latence dans la condition non-musicale était aussi longue que celle dans la condition stimulante, suggérant que la musique n’est pas plus efficace que les sons non-musicaux pour inhiber le réflexe de sursaut. Finalement, comme l’amplitude et la latence n’ont pas le même patron de réponses, cette étude suggère que le réflexe de sursaut est aussi modulé par le traitement des caractéristiques acoustiques et que ceux-ci ont un effet différent sur ces deux paramètres. En conclusion, la latence du réflexe acoustique de sursaut est une bonne méthode pour mesurer le niveau d’activation des émotions musicales. De futures recherches pourront utiliser le paradigme de la modulation affective du réflexe de sursaut pour mesurer les effets des émotions musicales selon des facteurs individuels tels que l’âge et la dépression. / Music has the capacity to evoke and modulate emotions, divided by two dimensions: arousal (relaxing-stimulating), and valence (unpleasant-pleasant). Musical valence can be objectively measured by the acoustic startle reflex, a defensive reaction consisting of an eye blink provoked by a short and loud noise. This reflex is facilitated by unpleasant music and inhibited by pleasant music. However, the arousal effect while listening to music on the startle reflex remains unknown. This study therefore aims to explore the affective startle modulation by stimulating and relaxing music. In a within-subjects design, 47 participants listened to stimulating music, relaxing music and non-musical sounds. White noises (50 ms, 105 dB(A)) were added over the excerpts to induce startle while eyeblink magnitude and latency were measured by electromyography. Excerpts’ acoustic features were then extracted and compared through experimental conditions to explore their effect on startle modulation. Startle latency was longer in the stimulating condition compared to the relaxing one, but no differences in magnitude were found, partially confirming our predictions. Exploratory analyses suggest that startle modulation is also attributed to bottom-up processes of acoustic features, and that these latter impact differently magnitude and latency. In conclusion, this study highlights startle latency measure efficiently emotional arousal while listening to music, allowing future research to use the paradigm of affective startle reflex modulation to evaluate the effect of music on emotions considering individual factors, such as age and depression. It also paves the way for comparisons of the effect of emotions and acoustic features processes on the startle reflex modulation.