This research is about evaluating vision in the periphery. Peripheral vision is of fundamental importance in the performance of our everyday activities. The aim of this thesis is to develop methods suitable for the evaluation of peripheral vision and to assess how different visual functions vary across the visual field. The results have application both within the field of visual rehabilitation of people with central visual field loss (CFL)and as well as in myopia research. All methods for assessing peripheral vision were implemented with adaptive psychophysical algorithms based on Bayesian statistics. A routine for time-efficient evaluation of peripheral contrast sensitivity was implemented and verified for measurements out to 30° in the visual field. Peripheral vision was evaluated for different properties of the stimuli: sharpness, motion, orientation, and extent. Optical quality was controlled using adaptive optics and/or corrective spectacles specially adapted for the peripheral viewing angle. We found that many peripheral visual functions improved with optical correction, especially in people with CFL. We also found improvements in peripheral contrast sensitivity for low spatial frequencies when stimuli drifted at 5 to 10 Hz; this applies both for people with normal vision and those with CFL. In the periphery, it is easier to see lines that are oriented parallel with respect to the visual field meridian. We have shown that this directional bias is present for both resolution and detection tasks in the periphery, even when the asymmetric optical errors are minimized. For accurate evaluation of peripheral vision, we therefore recommend using gratings that are oriented oblique to the visual  field meridian. The directional bias may have implications in how peripheral image quality affects myopia progression. Another proof that peripheral vision can influence central visual function is the fact that, when the stimulus extent was increased beyond the fovea, the blur in the stimulus was less noticeable. / Denna forskning handlar om att utvärdera synen i periferin. Vår perifera syn är ovärderlig i det dagliga livet. Målsättningen med denna avhandling är dels att utveckla metoder speciellt lämpade för perifer synutvärdering och dels att mäta hur olika synfunktioner varierar över synfältet. Resultaten har tillämpning både inom synrehabilitering för personer med centraltsynfältsbortfall och inom närsynthetsforskning. Adaptiv psykofysisk metodologi baserad på Bayesiansk statistik användes vid all utvärdering av det perifera seendet. Vi implementerade en rutin för tidseffektiv mätning av perifer kontrastkänslighet och verifierade den ut till 30° i synfältet. Den perifera synen utvärderades för olika egenskaper hos objektet: skärpa, rörelse, riktning och utbredning. Skärpan kontrollerades med hjälp av adaptiv optik och/eller glasögonkorrektion speciellt anpassad för den perifera synvinkeln. Vi fann att många periferasynfunktioner förbättras av optisk korrektion, särskilt för personer med centralt synfältsbortfall. Vi hittade även förbättringar i periferkontrastkänslighet för låga ortsfrekvenser när objektet modulerades med hastigheter mellan 5 och 10 Hz, vilket gäller både normalseende och personer med centralt synfältsbortfall. I periferin är det lättare att se linjer som är orienterade parallellt med synfältsmeridianen. Vi har visat att denna riktningsbias gäller både för upplösning och detektion i periferin, även när de asymmetriska optiska felen minimeras. För bästa mätnoggrannhet rekommenderar vi därför att använda randmönster som ligger snett relativt synfältsmeridianen. Denna riktningsbias skulle även kunna påverka hur den perifera bildkvalitén inverkar på utvecklingen av närsynthet. Ytterligare ett bevis för att perifer syn kan påverka den centrala synfunktionen är att, när objektets utbredning ökades, uppfattade personen det som mindre suddigt. / <p>QC 20160826</p>

Syfte: För att undersöka förekomsten av brytningsfel i ett prov i Mellanösternpersoner i åldrarna 8-21 år som bor i Sverige samt för att utvärdera den ackommoderande funktioner i denna grupp och jämföra den med de normativa data. Metod: Studien utfördes från den 1 april till 30 april i Norrköping / Sverige. En subjektiv binokulär refraktion genomfördes på patienterna där sfärisk ekvivalens tillämpades. Myopi definierades som en sfärisk ekvivalent brytning minst -0,50 D. Prevalens av hyperopi, definierad som en sfärisk ekvivalent brytning av minst +0,75 D.  Vid mätning av visus används decimalvisustavla. Ackommodativ facilitet mättes med hjälp av en (+2,00 /-2,00 D) flipper vid 40 cm både monokulärt och binoculär. Nott dynamisk retinoskopi används för att mäta ackommoderande svar. För att mäta  amplitud av ackommodation hos ögonen används push-up-tekniken. Ett cover-uncover test utfördes för att bekräfta diagnosen om strabismus upptäcktes. Resultat:  När det gäller typerna av brytningsfel var prevalensen som sådan: Enkel  myopisk 7 personer (22,58%), sammansatt myopisk astigmatism 7 personer (22,58 %),  enkel myopisk astigmatism 1 person (3,22%), enkel hypermetropisk 2 personer (6,45%), sammansatt hypermetropisk  1 person (3,221%), Emmetropi 13 personer (41,93%). Myopiförekomsten var högst i åldersgruppen 16-21 år. Refraktionsfelen hos  försökspersonerna varierade från -0,50 till -7,25 D med en medelrefraktion på -1,75 D. Minimal amplitud 11,5 D, medelamplitud 14,3 D och maximal amplitud var 19,4 D. Den genomsnittliga amplituden av ackommodation: OD 11,7 D, OS 11,6 D och OU 12,8 ± 1.33 D. Den normala genomsnittliga av NOTT OD 0,66 och OS 0,70. Cover test avstånd  19  personer var subj. Orto och 12 personer var subj. exotropi . Cover test nära 15 personer var subj. orto och 16 personer var subj exotropi. Vid undersökning av obj.  cover test avstånd och obj. cover test nära  var 3 personer exotropi och 28 personer orto. Den genomsnittliga ackommodativ facilitet för OD 10,4 cpm, OS 10,5 cpm och OU var 10,6 cpm.  Slutsats :  Resultatet från studien visade en högre förekomst av  myopi än hyperopi hos befolkningen mellan 8-21 år från Mellanöstern . Det vanligast förekommande synfelet i samtliga åldersgrupper var myopi. Resultatet från studien visade också att prevalensen av myopi från Mellanöstern är lägre än i Sverige. En anledning till det kan vara mindre närarbete. Personerna i Mellanöstern ägnar inte lika mycket tid åt närarbete som i Sverige och det har visats att mycket närarbete och okorrigerade brytningsfel påverkar närsynthetsutvecklingen. Hereditet påverkar också närsynthetsförekomsten då myopi till viss del är ärftligt. Den binokulära och monokulära amplituden av ackommodation överensstämde med den formel som föreslagits av Hofstetter. Ack.amplitud och NOTT  överensstämde med normativa data. Den binokulära och monokulära ackommodativ  faciliteten var signifikant högre jämfört med studier i Sverige men överensstämde med de rekommenderade data. / Purpose: To investigate the occurrence of refractive errors in a sample of Middle East people aged 8-21 who live in Sweden and to evaluate the accommodating functions in this sample and compare it with the normative data. Method: The study was carried out from 1 April  to 30 April  in Norrköping / Sweden. A subjective binocular refraction was performed on the patients where spherical equivalence was applied. Myopia was defined as a spherical equivalent break at least -0.50 D. Prevalence of hyperopia, defined as a spherical equivalent break of at least +0.75 D.When measuring visus, decimal point is used. Accommodative facility was measured using a (+2.00 / -2.00 D) flippers at 40 cm both monocular and binocular. Nott dynamic retinoscopy was used to measure accommodation respons. To measure the amplitude of accommodation in the eyes, the push-up technique was used. A cover-uncover test was performed to confirm the diagnosis if strabismus was detected. Results: As for the types of refractive error, the prevalence as such was: Simple myopia 7 persons (22.58%), compound myopic astigmatism 7 persons (22.58%), simple myopic astigmatism 1 person (3.22%), simple hypermetropic 2 persons (6.45%), compound hypermetropic 1 person (3.221%), Emmetropi 13 people (41.93%). The myopia occurrence was highest in the age group 16-21 years. The refractive errors of the subjects ranged from -0.50 to -7.25 D with a mean refraction of -1.75 D. Minimum amplitude 11.5 D, mean amplitude 14.3 D and maximum amplitude was 19.4 D. The average amplitude of accommodation: OD 11.7 D, OS 11.6 D and OU 12.8 ± 1.33 D. The normal average of  NOTT OD 0.66 D and OS 0.70 D. Distance cover test 19 people were subj. orto and 12 people were subj. exotropy. Near cover test 15 people were subj. orto and 16 people were subj exotropy. When examining obj. distance cover test and obj. near cover tes, 3 persons were exotropic and 28 persons were ortho. The average of accommodative of  facility for OD 10.4 cpm, OS 10.5 cpm and OU were 10.6 cpm. Conclusion: The results of the study showed a higher incidence of myopia than hyperopia in the population between 8-21 years from the Middle East. The most common visual impairment in all occupational groups was myopia. The results of the study also showed that the prevalence of myopia in the Middle East is lower than in Sweden. One reason for this may be less close work. The people in the Middle East do not devote as much time to near work as in Sweden, and it has been shown that much near work and uncorrected refractive errors affect near-sightedness development. Heredity also affects the near-sightedness when myopia is to some extent hereditary. The binocular and monocular amplitude of accommodation was consistent with the formula proposed by Hofstetter. Ack.amplitud and NOTT was consistent with normative data. Den binocular and monocular accommodative of facility was significantly higher compared to studies in Sweden but agree with the recommended data.

Hintergrund: Die Excimer Laser PRK zur Korrektur der geringen bis moderaten Myopie wird als präzises Verfahren der refraktiven Chirurgie angesehen und weltweit angewandt. Die Genauigkeit der PRK nimmt jedoch mit steigender Korrektur ab. Das Ziel dieser Untersuchung bestand darin, den Einfluß unterschiedlicher Laserstrahlapplikations- und -formungssysteme auf die korneale Oberflächenstruktur, das Hornhautprofil und die Zielrefraktion zu untersuchen. Materialien und Methoden: Es wurden mit dem Meditec Mel 60 und dem Schwind Keratom, zwei Excimer Laser der Wellenlänge 193 nm, an jeweils 10 enukleierten Schweinehornhäuten eine PRK mit einer Zielkorrektur von -3, -6, -9 D mit einem Ablationsdurchmesser von 6 mm (5 mm - 9D) durchgeführt, ein Silikonabdruck von der Hornhautoberfläche angefertigt und mit einem dynamisch fokussierenden Topometrie System UBM Microfocus vermessen. Hornhautradius, Brechkraft der stromalen Oberfläche, Profilabweichungen von der idealen sphärischen Form sowie Rauheitsparameter der verschiedenen Zonen wurden ermittelt. Ergebnisse: Epithelfreie Hornhäute besitzen ein sphärisches Profil. Der Meditec Mel60 Laser erzielte nach PRK von -3, -6 und -9 D sphärische Profile mit einer durchschnittlichen Refraktionsänderung von -3.4, -6.7 und -8.7 D. Das Schwind Keratom erzeugte eine mittlere Refraktionsänderung von -3.5, -5.8 und 8.4 D, wobei das korneale Ablationsprofil in allen Korrekturgruppen erhebliche Profilabweichungen in Form von zentralen Profilkuppen aufwies. Die durchschnittliche Höhe der zentralen Profilkuppen betrug nach der -3 D PRK 7.39 (±0.34) µm und stieg auf 16.31 (±1.06) µm bzw. 15.06 (±0.96) µm in der -6 und in der -9 D Serie. Die Relation zwischen der Profilkuppenhöhe und der Abtragtiefe lag zwischen 21 - 25% und konnte durch eine Anti-Central-Island Programm (ACI 100%) nur um 4% auf 18-20 % der Abtragtiefe reduziert werden. Die stromale Oberfläche der unbehandelten, epithelfreien Kontrollgruppe hat eine glatte, homogene Struktur. Die Rauheit der stromalen Oberfläche nach Ablation mit dem Meditec Laser war um 50 % stärker ausgeprägt als beim Schwind Keratom. Diskussion: Die Beschaffenheit der stromalen Oberfläche nach der Excimer Laser PRK zur Korrektur der Myopie, wird durch die Rauheitsparameter quantitativ beschrieben und ermöglicht den direkten Vergleich zwischen den Lasersystemen. Die Rauheit ist positiv mit der Ablationstiefe und dem Ablationsdurchmesser korreliert. Je höher eine myope Korrektur angestrebt wird, desto rauher ist die stromale Oberfläche und damit das Risiko, dass sich eine epitheliale Hyperplasie und subepitheliale Trübungen entwickeln, die ursächlich mit den klinisch beobachteten Phänomenen der myopen Regression, der Abnahme der Kontrastsehschärfe, dem Verlust der bestkorrigierten Sehschärfe und monokularer Doppelbilder in Zusammenhang stehen. Ob der Unterschied der Rauheit von durchschnittlich 50% sich in der Inzidenz der klinischen Komplikationen widerspiegelt, können nur vergleichende Studien belegen. Sicher ist, das die Vorhersagbarkeit des refraktiven Ergebnisses durch die Ablation mit dem Aesculap Meditec MEL 60 Laser besser einzuschätzen ist, als das mit zentralen Profilkuppen komplizierte Ablationsprofil des Schwind Keratoms. / Purpose: To evaluate the predictability of refractive outcome, sphericitiy of corneal profiles and surface roughness parameters after myopic PRK with different, commercially available excimer laser beam delivery and beam shaping systems. Materials and Methods: Myopic Excimer Laser PRK of -3, -6 and -9 D in 6mm ablation zone (5 mm in -9 D) on performed on porcine eyes was performed with the Aesculap Meditec Mel 60, a slit scanning Laser and the Schwind Keratom I, a broad area laser with band mask beam shaping. A silicone replica was obtained to conserve the corneal profile and measured with a dynamic focusing topometry system (UBM Microfocus) to obtain radius, corrected corneal refraction and corneal surface roughness parameters. Results: Untreated corneas of the control group displayed spherical profiles. PRK of intended -3, -6 and -9 D correction with the slit scanning Aesculap Meditec Mel60 excimer laser achieved a refractive change of an average -3.4, -6.7 and -8.7 D respectively without major profile deviations. PRK with the Schwind Keratom, a broad area beam excimer laser resulted a refractive change of -3.5, -5.8 and -8.4 D respectively. The Ablation created considerable central profile deviations representing central islands of 7.39 (±0.34) µm after -3 D, 16.31 (±1.06) µm and 15.06 (±0.96) µm height after - 6 and -9 D PRK, respectively. Mean central island height was 21 - 25% of ablation depth and was reduced by anti-central-island-program to 18-20 % of ablation depth. Stromal surface roughness increased with ablation depth and was significantly rougher after scanning beam ablation compared to broad area ablation. Conclusions: Profile deviations increase with higher corrections and lessen the predictability of the refractive results. The Aesculap Meditec MEL60 Slit scanning system creates predictable spherical corneal profiles. The Schwind Keratom broad area laser create with band mask beam shaping central islands increasing with higher corrections. The application of an Anti-Central-Island Program does not eliminate the central profile elevations sufficiently. Stromal surface was rougher after scanning beam compared to broad area beam ablation.

OBJETIVO: Comparar os resultados de duas técnicas cirúrgicas guiadas pela análise de frente de onda, a ceratectomia fotorrefrativa (PRK) e a ceratomileusis in situ a laser (LASIK), para correção da miopia baixa a moderada, associada ou não ao astigmatismo. LOCAL: Setor de Cirurgia Refrativa da Clínica Oftalmológica do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil. MÉTODOS: Estudo prospectivo randomizado envolvendo 70 olhos (35 pacientes) submetidos ao LASIK personalizado em um olho e PRK personalizado no olho contralateral para correção de miopia até 5 dioptrias (D) e astigmatismo até 1,5D. Avaliou-se acuidade visual não-corrigida (AVNC), melhor acuidade visual corrigida (MAVC), resultados refratométricos, aberrometria, sensibilidade ao contraste fotópico e mesópico, acuidade visual de baixo contraste (AVBC), qualidade da imagem retiniana (Função de Transferência Modular e Strehl ratio) e espalhamento intraocular de luz (EIL) no período pré-operatório e no 1o, 3o, 6o e 12o mês pós-operatório. RESULTADOS: O equivalente esférico (EE) médio pré-operatório foi -2,57 ± 0,95D no grupo LASIK e, no grupo PRK, -2,52 ± 0,90D (p = 0,722). No 12o mês pósoperatório (PO), EE foi -0,06 ± 0,33D e -0,12 ± 0,41D, respectivamente (p = 0,438). No grupo LASIK, 60,0% dos olhos apresentaram AVNC 20/16 e 96,7% 20/20, e no grupo PRK, 66,6% e 96,7%, respectivamente (p = 0,667). No período pré-operatório, o total das aberrações de alta ordem (HOAs) foi 0,37 ± 0,09 m no grupo LASIK e 0,36 ± 0,11m no grupo PRK (p = 0,752). No 12o mês PO, o total das HOAs foi 0,46 ± 0,21m no grupo LASIK e 0,42 ± 0,14m no grupo PRK (p = 0,438). Tanto o teste de sensibilidade ao contraste fotópico como o mesópico apresentaram resultados semelhantes entre as técnicas, exceto pela freqüência 1,5 ciclos por grau (cpg) do teste mesópico no 12o mês PO, a favor do grupo PRK. Os índices de qualidade da imagem retiniana mostraram comportamento similar entre as técnicas ao longo do seguimento. Não houve aumento significativo do espalhamento intraocular da luz em ambos os grupos, quatro olhos cursaram com aumento transitório. CONCLUSÃO: Dentro das condições deste estudo, ambas as técnicas apresentaram excelentes resultados refratométricos e função visual semelhante. Apesar do tratamento personalizado guiado pela análise de frentes de onda, houve indução das HOAs, de forma similar, tanto no LASIK como no PRK. / PURPOSE: To compare clinical results of two wavefront-guided treatments, photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) and laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK), for low to moderate myopia correction, with or without astigmatism. SETTING: Refractive Surgery Service, General Hospital, University Of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. METHODS: Prospective randomized study of 70 eyes (35 patients) submitted to custom LASIK and custom PRK (contralateral eye) for myopia up to 5D and astigmatism up to 1,5D. Uncorrected visual acuity (AVNC), best-corrected visual acuity (MAVC), refractive results, wavefront analysis, photopic and mesopic contrast sensitivity, low contrast visual acuity (AVBC), retinal image quality (Modulation Transfer Function and Strehl ratio) and intraocular straylight (EIL) were performed preoperatively and at one, three, six and twelve months postoperatively. RESULTS: The mean preoperative spherical equivalent (EE) was -2,57 ± 0,95D in the LASIK group and -2,52 ± 0,90D in the PRK group (p = 0,722). At twelve months postoperatively (PO), the mean EE was -0,06 ± 0,33D and -0,12 ± 0,41D, respectively (p = 0,438). In the LASIK group, 60,0% had AVNC 20/16 and 96,7% 20/20, and in the PRK group, 66,6% e 96,7%, respectively (p = 0,667). The mean pre-treatment total high-order aberrations (HOAs) was 0,37 ± 0,09 m in the LASIK group and 0,36 ± 0,11m in the PRK group (p = 0,752). At twelve months PO, the mean total HOAs was 0,46 ± 0,21m in the LASIK group and 0,42 ± 0,14 m in the PRK group (p = 0,438). No significant difference in photopic and mesopic contrast sensitivity between groups was noted, apart from the 1,5 cpg frequency of the mesopic test, favoring PRK, at the 12th month PO. Similar results were found for retinal image quality metrics during the follow-up. No significant increase of the intraocular straylight was found for both techniques, four eyes presented transitory elevations. CONCLUSION: In the conditions of this study, both techniques had excellent refractive results and similar visual function. In spite of the wavefront-guided treatments, HOAs were induced similarly after LASIK and PRK

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Oklahoma. / Bibliography: leaves 164-207.

OBJETIVO: Comparar os resultados de duas técnicas cirúrgicas guiadas pela análise de frente de onda, a ceratectomia fotorrefrativa (PRK) e a ceratomileusis in situ a laser (LASIK), para correção da miopia baixa a moderada, associada ou não ao astigmatismo. LOCAL: Setor de Cirurgia Refrativa da Clínica Oftalmológica do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil. MÉTODOS: Estudo prospectivo randomizado envolvendo 70 olhos (35 pacientes) submetidos ao LASIK personalizado em um olho e PRK personalizado no olho contralateral para correção de miopia até 5 dioptrias (D) e astigmatismo até 1,5D. Avaliou-se acuidade visual não-corrigida (AVNC), melhor acuidade visual corrigida (MAVC), resultados refratométricos, aberrometria, sensibilidade ao contraste fotópico e mesópico, acuidade visual de baixo contraste (AVBC), qualidade da imagem retiniana (Função de Transferência Modular e Strehl ratio) e espalhamento intraocular de luz (EIL) no período pré-operatório e no 1o, 3o, 6o e 12o mês pós-operatório. RESULTADOS: O equivalente esférico (EE) médio pré-operatório foi -2,57 ± 0,95D no grupo LASIK e, no grupo PRK, -2,52 ± 0,90D (p = 0,722). No 12o mês pósoperatório (PO), EE foi -0,06 ± 0,33D e -0,12 ± 0,41D, respectivamente (p = 0,438). No grupo LASIK, 60,0% dos olhos apresentaram AVNC 20/16 e 96,7% 20/20, e no grupo PRK, 66,6% e 96,7%, respectivamente (p = 0,667). No período pré-operatório, o total das aberrações de alta ordem (HOAs) foi 0,37 ± 0,09 m no grupo LASIK e 0,36 ± 0,11m no grupo PRK (p = 0,752). No 12o mês PO, o total das HOAs foi 0,46 ± 0,21m no grupo LASIK e 0,42 ± 0,14m no grupo PRK (p = 0,438). Tanto o teste de sensibilidade ao contraste fotópico como o mesópico apresentaram resultados semelhantes entre as técnicas, exceto pela freqüência 1,5 ciclos por grau (cpg) do teste mesópico no 12o mês PO, a favor do grupo PRK. Os índices de qualidade da imagem retiniana mostraram comportamento similar entre as técnicas ao longo do seguimento. Não houve aumento significativo do espalhamento intraocular da luz em ambos os grupos, quatro olhos cursaram com aumento transitório. CONCLUSÃO: Dentro das condições deste estudo, ambas as técnicas apresentaram excelentes resultados refratométricos e função visual semelhante. Apesar do tratamento personalizado guiado pela análise de frentes de onda, houve indução das HOAs, de forma similar, tanto no LASIK como no PRK. / PURPOSE: To compare clinical results of two wavefront-guided treatments, photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) and laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK), for low to moderate myopia correction, with or without astigmatism. SETTING: Refractive Surgery Service, General Hospital, University Of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. METHODS: Prospective randomized study of 70 eyes (35 patients) submitted to custom LASIK and custom PRK (contralateral eye) for myopia up to 5D and astigmatism up to 1,5D. Uncorrected visual acuity (AVNC), best-corrected visual acuity (MAVC), refractive results, wavefront analysis, photopic and mesopic contrast sensitivity, low contrast visual acuity (AVBC), retinal image quality (Modulation Transfer Function and Strehl ratio) and intraocular straylight (EIL) were performed preoperatively and at one, three, six and twelve months postoperatively. RESULTS: The mean preoperative spherical equivalent (EE) was -2,57 ± 0,95D in the LASIK group and -2,52 ± 0,90D in the PRK group (p = 0,722). At twelve months postoperatively (PO), the mean EE was -0,06 ± 0,33D and -0,12 ± 0,41D, respectively (p = 0,438). In the LASIK group, 60,0% had AVNC 20/16 and 96,7% 20/20, and in the PRK group, 66,6% e 96,7%, respectively (p = 0,667). The mean pre-treatment total high-order aberrations (HOAs) was 0,37 ± 0,09 m in the LASIK group and 0,36 ± 0,11m in the PRK group (p = 0,752). At twelve months PO, the mean total HOAs was 0,46 ± 0,21m in the LASIK group and 0,42 ± 0,14 m in the PRK group (p = 0,438). No significant difference in photopic and mesopic contrast sensitivity between groups was noted, apart from the 1,5 cpg frequency of the mesopic test, favoring PRK, at the 12th month PO. Similar results were found for retinal image quality metrics during the follow-up. No significant increase of the intraocular straylight was found for both techniques, four eyes presented transitory elevations. CONCLUSION: In the conditions of this study, both techniques had excellent refractive results and similar visual function. In spite of the wavefront-guided treatments, HOAs were induced similarly after LASIK and PRK

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